Temple Architecture styles: Javanese Architecture

Javanese temple architecture is mainly found on the Java island of Indonesia, exhibited by Sanatanist and Buddhist temples. The temples are termed Candi, as they are in rest of Indonesia.

The earlier temples mainly date back to the time period when the power centre was in central Java, the later temples likewise when the power centre was in eastern Java. Central Java style temple complexes are mainly found in Central Java & West Java provinces with some examples in East Java province and Special Region of Yogyakarta; Eastern Java style temple complexes are mainly found in East Java province. Eastern Javanese architecture seems to have inspired and influenced Balinese architecture, found on the neighbouring Bali island of Indonesia.

General Architecture terms:

Temples:

Temples in Indonesia are usually called Candi.

• Central Javanese style vs Eastern Javanese style : Dr. R Soekmono in the book Pengantar Sejarah Kebudayaan Indonesia 2 described a number of differences between the the 2 main styles of Javanese temple architecture, but while grouping Sumatran and Balinese architecture styles with Eastern Javanese.

  • Central Javanese style temples and related structures tend to be bulky, with stepped roof sections, usually consisting of 3 parts. The pinnacles are either stūpa shaped (Buddhist temples) or vajra shaped (Sanatanist temples). Entrances would be made with Kāla-Makara (Kāla head flanked by Makara motifs) decoration, with Kāla having no lower jaw. The layout of the complexes is usually concentric and symmetrical, with main temple being located in the center of the complex surrounded by smaller perwara temples in regular rows. The temples usually face east.

  • Eastern Javanese style temples and related structures tend to be tall and slender. The multiple parts of stepped sections form a combined roof structure smoothly. The pinnacles are either cylinder shaped (Buddhist temples) or cube shaped (Sanatanist temples). The entrances have only Kāla head decorations, with both upper and lower jaws. The layout of the complexes is usually linear, asymmetric, following topography of the site, with main temple located in the back or furthermost from the entrance, often located in the highest ground of the complex, perwara temples being located in front of the main temple — the temples are constructed like stepped pyramids. The temples mostly face west.

• Types of temple by deified being :

  • Pendharmaan : such temples deify a member of royal family and thereby include funerary temples

• Subsidiary Temples : Besides a main temple, a Javanese style temple complex has multiple types of subsidiary temples. Such temples are similar in style but smaller in size and simpler in decoration.

  • Candi Apit (flanking temple) : subsidiary temples on both sides of the main temple (relative to axis of entrance) or on both sides of the inner courtyard (relative to axis of entrance of the main temple)

  • Candi Kelir (screen temple) : subsidiary temples on the 4 cardinal directions, “covering” the entrance on that direction by obscuring the entrance gate, if any on that direction.

  • Candi Patok (peg temple) : in the inner courtyard of a temple complex, if applicable, 4 temples may be placed on the 4 corners.

  • Candi Perwara (ancillary / guardian / complementary temple) : temples constructed around the main temple or main temple complex. Some perwara temples may be constructed by later rules or other donors as expansion of the existing temple complex.

Gateways:

Javanese and Balinese temple complexes can have main 2 types of gateways:

• candi bentar — gateway usually constructed on the outer regions of the complex, constructed like a candi split cleanly into 2 symmetrical parts

• paduraksa — gateway usually constructed on the inner holier regions of the complex, constructed like a candi

The structure of a gateway consists of 3 parts:

• base containing a flight of steps

• body containing the entrance opening

• crown having a stepped profile characteristic of Candi

Development

5th century CE – 8th century CE

• Tarumanagara (358 CE – 669 CE)

• Kutai Martadipura Kingdom (399 CE – 1635 CE)

• Karajan Kalingga (6th century CE – 7th century CE)

• Galuh (669 CE – 1482 CE)

• Sunda (669 CE – 1579 CE)

Polities:

Early Indianized kingdoms of Java include Tarumanagara (358 CE – 669 CE)¹, Kutai Martadipura Kingdom (399 CE – 1635 CE)² , Karajan Kalingga (6th- 7th century CE)³, Galuh (669 CE – 1482 CE)⁴ and Sunda (669 CE – 1579 CE)⁵.

Temples and Religion:

Sanatanist and Buddhist religious structures in Java are estimated to have been in existence at least since 5th century CE under these kingdoms.

Temple architecture evolved rapidly in the next 100 years. Javanese temple plan and layout changed from the centralistic, concentric and formal layout of Central Javanese period (8th-10th century CE) to linear, often asymmetric layout following the topography of the site of Eastern Java period (11th-15th century CE). The main temple of central Java temple complexes located in the centre of the complex surrounded by perwara temples, while the main temple of the complexes from Eastern Java period is located in the back, furthermost from the entrance, and often built on the highest ground of the temple complex.

→ Early Javanese Temples examples:

1. Jiwa Temple in Batujaya archeological complex, Karawang in West Java, Indonesia (Built 5th-6th century CE; Tarumanagara) [Source: File:Batujaya temple.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

2. Dieng temple complex in Dieng Plateau, near Banjarnegara, Central Java, Indonesia (Built 7th and/or 8th century CE; presumably under Karajan Kalingga) [Source: File:Complex of Candi Arjuna.jpg]

3. Candi Cangkuang in Kampung Pulo village, Cangkuang, Kecamatan Leles, Garut Regency, West Java, Indonesia (Built 8th century CE; Galuh Kingdom) [Source: File:Cangkuang 3.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

→

1. Viṣṇu statues (7th-8th century CE; Tarumanagara) [Source: File:Vishnu Cibuaya Tarumanagara.JPG - Wikimedia Commons]

2. Śiva statue (8th-9th century CE; Sunda kingdom) [Source: File:Shiva Mahadeva Cicalengka Bandung 8-9 Century.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

8th century CE – 13th century CE

• Mataram Kingdom (716 CE – 1016 CE)^[7]

• Bali Dwipa Kingdom (Warmadēwa dynasty; c. 914 CE – 12th century CE)^[8]

Polities:

Mataram kingdom was initially based in Central Java, and then in East Java. In the period between late 8th century CE and mid-9th century CE, Mataram kingdom saw the blossoming of classical Javanese art and architecture reflected in the rapid growth of temple construction. Mataram kingdom declined after a rebellion incited by Śrīvajaya kingdom.

• A short lived successor kingdom Kahuripan (1019 CE – 1045 CE) with Airlangga as its only king survived for a short while. Kahuripan kingdom ended when Airlangga abdicated and divided his kingdom between his two sons forming two kingdoms: Janggala (1045 CE – 1136 CE) and Kediri (1045 CE – 1221 CE), of which Kediri later absorbed Janggala. Kediri kingdom was succeeded by Singhasari kingdom.

Warmadewa dynasty of Bali kingdom seems to have been influenced by Mataram kingdom when Mahēndradattā of Mataram kingdom’s Isyana dynasty became the queen consort of Bali king Udayana Warmadēwa, as reflected in the rock-cut Candis of Gunung Kawi in Bali, carved during 11th century CE.

Temples:

In the period between late 8th century CE and mid-9th century CE, Mataram kingdom saw the blossoming of classical Javanese art and architecture reflected in the rapid growth of temple construction.

→ The ruin of the main temple of Gunung Wukir (732 CE). Only the base part and yoni remain, the body and roof parts are missing. There are three perwara or smaller complementary temples in front of the main temple. The temple is located on Gunung Wukir Hill, Canggal hamlet, Kadiluwih village, Salam, Magelang Regency, Central Java, Indonesia. [Source: File:Gunung Wukir Canggal Main Temple.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

During this period, Javanese architecture may have influenced Kambuja architecture. The Kaladi inscription (~909 CE), mentioned Kmir (Khmer people of the Kambuja Empire) together with Campā and Rman (Mon) as foreigners from mainland Southeast Asia that frequently came to Java to trade. The inscription suggests a maritime trade network has been established between kingdoms in mainland Southeast Asia and Java. Possibly, arched gateways and corbelling methods may have been transmitted from Java to Kambuja.

→ Screenshot from Mataram Kingdom - Wikipedia

The later period of Mataram reign also marks transition between Central Javanese to East Javanese architecture as seen in Prambanan temple complex.

→ Layout model of Prambanan Temple Complex — the layout is Central Javanese style, with the main temple being surrounded by smaller temples on all sides. The temples show a transition towards Eastern Javanese style, being tall and slender, but with Central Javanese style vajra pinnacles and Kāla-Makara entrance decorations. (Built 9th century CE) [Source: File:Prambanan Architectural Model.jpg]

The translation of Rāmāyaṇa to Kakawin Rāmāyaṇa also took place under Mataram reign, with the earliest Rāmāyaṇa based reliefs marking their appearance then.

→ Kakawin Rāmāyaṇa reliefs examples:

1. Rāma killing evil giant, Rāmāyaṇa bas-relief on Prambanan [Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=8611372]

2. Bas relief in Prambanan depicting a scene taken from Kakawin Rāmāyaṇa [Source: File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Reliëf op de aan Shiva gewijde tempel op de Candi Lara Jonggrang oftewel het Prambanan tempelcomplex TMnr 10016190.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

The origins of Penchak Silat weapon Kris^[9] are traced to 9th century CE through the reliefs of Borobudur and Prambanan.

→ Kris depicted on 9th century CE Borobudur bas-relief [Source: File:Borobudur Keris.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

Sculpture making continued to develop and evolve during this period.

→ [Source: Mataram Kingdom - Wikipedia]

1. 9th century Central Javanese gold and silver image of Mahāyāna Buddhist deity Tārā

2. Śiva statue in Prambanan (9th century CE)

3. Buddhist bronze figure depicting Bōdhīsattva Padmapāṇi (10th-century CE)

Warmadewa dynasty of Bali kingdom seems to have been influenced by Mataram kingdom when Mahēndradattā of Mataram kingdom’s Isyana dynasty became the queen consort of Bali king Udayana Warmadēwa, as reflected in the rock-cut Candis of Gunung Kawi in Bali, carved during 11th century CE.

→ Gunung Kawi Rock-cut Temple-cum-funerary complex^[10] in Tampaksiring, north east of Ubud in Bali, Indonesia (Built 11th century CE) [Source: File:1 gunung kawi temple.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

13th century CE – 16th century CE

• Singhasari kingdom (Rajasa dynasty; 1222 CE – 1292 CE)^[11]

• Kemaharajaan Majapahit (Rajasa dynasty; 1293 CE – 1527 CE)^[12]

Polities:

Rajasa dynasty ruled both Singhasari kingdom and Majapahit empire.

Singhasari kingdom’s peak was reached during the reign of its last king Kertanegara (r. 1268-1292 CE). Kertanegara was the first Javanese ruler with territorial ambitions that extended beyond the island of Java. In 1284 CE, he subjected nearby Bali to vassalage. Kertanagara also managed to form an alliance with Campā (in present-day southern Vietnam), another dominant state in Southeast Asia. Late in his reign, the Pamalayu expedition succeeded in gaining control of Melayu Kingdom in eastern Sumatra, and possibly also gained control over Sunda Kingdom and hegemony over the Strait of Malacca. Other areas in Madura Island and Borneo also offered their submission to Kertanegara. Singhasari kingdom was conquered by the short lived Second Kediri kingdom, itself conquered by Kertanegara’s son-in-law Raden Wijaya who founded Majapahit empire.

→ Joko Dolog statue Surabaya from Jawi Temple the embodiment of Kertanagara as Buddha Mahākṣōbhya. [Source: File:063 Main Statue, Joko Dolog (39706345204).jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Statue of Amōghapāśa presented by Kertanegara of Singhasari to the Melayu Kingdom of East Sumatra [Source: File:Amoghapasa Padang Roco Inscription Front.JPG - Wikimedia Commons]

In 1293 CE, Kertenagara’s son-in-law Raden Wijaya^[13] founded a stronghold with the capital Majapahit (present-day Trowulan), which became the centre of eponymous Majapahit empire. According to the Nagarakretagama (Desawarñana) written in 1365 CE, Majapahit was an empire of 98 tributaries, stretching from Sumatra to New Guinea consisting of present-day Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia, Brunei, southern Thailand, Timor Leste and southwestern Philippines (in particular Sulu Archipelago) although the scope of Majapahit sphere of influence is still the subject of debate among historians. In 1498 CE, the last independent ruler Girindrawardhana was deposed by his vice-regent Udara who became a vassal of Demak Sultanate, thereby ending the independent Majapahit rule. In 1527 CE, the rebelling Majahapit forces were defeated and the remnants were also defeated later on by Demak Sultanate.

→ Rough estimations of Majapahit's conquest of the Indonesian archipelago (Nusantara) in 13th century CE, its decline and its eventual fall in the early 16th century CE to Demak Sultanate. The existing historical records from several sources only partially describe the years listed and thus are subject to revisions [Source: File:Majapahit Expansion.gif - Wikimedia Commons]

→ L2R: Mortuary deified statues of some Majapahit rulers [Source: Majapahit - Wikipedia]

1. King Raden Wijaya portrayed as Harihara

2. Queen regnant Tribhuwanottunggadewi (r. 1328 CE – 1350 CE) portrayed as Umā Pārvati (Durgā)

3. Mortuary deified statue (deity unknown) of Queen regnant Suhita (r. 1429 CE – 1447 CE)

Temples:

The major temple associated with Singhasari kingdom is the incomplete Candi Singhasari built as a mortuary temple to honour its last ruler Kertanegara.

→ Candi Singhasari in Jalan Kertanegara, Candirenggo village, Singosari district, Malang Regency, East Java in Indonesia — built as a mortuary temple to honour Kertanegara, the last king of Singhasari (13th century CE) [Source: File:Candi singosari.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

The Majapahit temple architecture follows the east Javanese styles, in contrast to earlier central Javanese style — this east Javanese temple style is also dated back from Kediri period c. 11th century CE. The shapes of Majapahit temples tend to be slender and tall, with a roof constructed from multiple parts of stepped sections formed a combined roof structure curved upward smoothly creating the perspective illusion that the temple is perceived taller than its actual height. The pinnacle of the temples are usually cube (mostly Sanatanist temples), sometimes dagoba cylindrical structures (Buddhist temples). Although some of the temples dated from Majapahit period used andesite or sandstone, the red bricks is also a popular construction material.

Majapahit empire also started usage of a vine sap & palm sugar mortar to join bricks used to construct the temples.

→

1. Jabung temple (14th century CE) [Source: File:Candi Jabung, Paiton, Probolinggo, East Java, 2017-09-14 02.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

2. Pari temple (Built 14th century CE) [Source: File:Candi Pari 1.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

In later period near the fall of Majapahit, the art and architecture of Majapahit witnessed the revival of indigenous native Austronesian megalithic architectural elements, such as Sukuh and Cetho temples on western slopes of Mount Lawu. Unlike previous Majapahit temples that demonstrate typical Sanatanist architecture of high-rise towering structure, the shape of these temples are step pyramid, quite similar to Mesoamerican pyramids. The stepped pyramid structure called Punden Berundak (stepped mounds) is a common megalithic structure during Indonesian prehistoric era before the adoption of Hindu-Buddhist culture.

→

1. Candi Sukuh [Source: File:Candi Sukuh 2007.JPG - Wikimedia Commons]

2. Candi Ceto [Source: File:Central building, Cetho Temple, 2016-10-13.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

British statesman Thomas Stamford Bingley Raffles who wrote The History of Java (1817), based on study of Candi Sukuh, stated that the kris recognized today came into existence around 1361 CE in Majapahit, East Java. The scene in bas relief of Sukuh Temple in Central Java, dated from 15th century CE Majapahit era, possibly shows the workshop of a Javanese kris blacksmith.

→ Candi Sukuh kris blacksmith relief. The scene depicted Bhīma as the blacksmith on the left forging the metal, Vināyaka in the center, and Arjuna on the right operating the piston bellows to blow air into the furnace. The wall behind the blacksmith displays various items manufactured in the forge, including kris. These representations of the kris in Candi Sukuh established the fact that by 1437 CE the kris had already gained an important place within Javanese culture. [Source: File:Keris Relief at Sukuh Temple.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

Structural Details

Decorative Elements:

Foliage reliefs:

Foliage reliefs are commonly found at bases, corners and as markers for start / end of a mythological story.

→ Foliage reliefs examples:

Foliage reliefs at Candi Mirigambar, Tulungagung Regency, Java, Indonesia [Source: https://orientalarchitecture.com/sid/1793/indonesia/tulungagung-regency-java/candi-mirigambar]

Mythological non-deity beings:

Common reliefs include trees, real-life animals or their exaggerated depictions, mythological beings like therianthropes etc. Foliage reliefs may also be found over some temples.

→ Mythological non-deity beings examples:

Prambanan relief showing a lion in niche flanked by two kalpataru trees each flanked by a pair of human-headed birds [Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Reli%C3%ABfs_op_de_Candi_Lara_Jonggrang_oftewel_het_Prambanan_tempelcomplex_TMnr_10030057.jpg]

Kāla-Makara and Kāla Motifs:

Kāla, one of the variations of Kīrtimukha motif common in South Asian and South-East Asian temples, refers to a grotesque face considered an auspicious symbol. Kāla-Makara refers to a motif wherein the Kāla face continues to end in 2 makaras on either side.

• In Central Javanese temples, entrances would be made with Kāla-Makara (Kāla head flanked by Makara motifs) decoration, with Kāla having no lower jaw.

• In Eastern Javanese temples, entrances may have only Kāla head decorations, with both upper and lower jaws.

→ Kāla-Makara motifs examples:

Kāla-Makara motif as entrance to staircase in Borobudur complex in Muntilan, Central Java, Indonesia [Source: File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Poort op de Borobudur TMnr 10015959.jpg]

→ Kāla motifs examples:

Kāla motif on Candi Singhasari located in Singosari district, Malang Regency, East Java, Indonesia. (built 13th century CE Singhasari period) [Source: File:Candi Singosari, Kala 1335.jpg]

Kāla motif forming a niche having a Śivaliṅgaṁ inside, in Candi Puntadewa, Banjarnegara Regency, Java, Indonesia (Built 8th-9th century CE) [Source: ]

Kāla flanked by 2 humanoid figures, over the lower tier of Candi Merak, Klaten Regency, Java, Indonesia [Source: https://orientalarchitecture.com/sid/1799/indonesia/klaten-regency-java/candi-merak]

Nāga and Nāga-makara motifs:

Nāgas are serpentine or draconic beings, usually large snakes with large and ornamented heads. Nāga-makara is usually a makara whose upper jaw continues to become a Nāga.

Nāga motifs and Nāga-makara motifs usually feature as ends of staircases which form entrances to temples.

→ Nāga motifs examples:

Eroded Nāga motifs over staircase of Candi Sawentar, Blitar Regency, Java, Indonesia [Source: Candi Sawentar]

→ Nāga-makara motifs examples:

Nāga-makara with a lion inside makara’s mouth, in Candi Bubrah, Klaten Regency, Java, Indonesia [Source: https://orientalarchitecture.com/sid/1745/indonesia/klaten-regency-java/candi-bubrah]

Avianthropes:

The most common avianthrope to be depicted in Java, and in South and South-East Asia is Garuḍa, usually shown as a male with avian features, usually talon, wings and an avian head.

Other common avianthropes include Kinnaras who are somewhat similar to Garuḍa but may not have human arms but only bird wings.

→ Garuḍa depictions reliefs examples:

1. Garuḍa depictions at Candi Kidal, Malang Regency, Java, Indonesia [Source: https://orientalarchitecture.com/sid/1787/indonesia/malang-regency-java/candi-kidal]
   Garuḍa with his mother sitting on him after her rescue from Nāgas

Garuḍa balances nectar of immortality on his head

→ Other avianthrope reliefs examples:

Prambanan relief showing a lion in niche flanked by two kalpataru trees each flanked by a pair of human-headed birds [Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Reli%C3%ABfs_op_de_Candi_Lara_Jonggrang_oftewel_het_Prambanan_tempelcomplex_TMnr_10030057.jpg]

Avianthropes depicted on Candi Sukuh, Karanganyar Regency, Java, Indonesia [Source: https://orientalarchitecture.com/sid/1909/indonesia/karanganyar-regency-java/candi-sukuh]

Mythological Stories:

The common mythological stories depicted in Javanese temple reliefs are of Javanese versions of Rāmāyaṇa, Māhābhārata and Jātaka tales.

Kakawin Rāmāyaṇa reliefs:

Kakawin Rāmāyaṇa reliefs include depictions of scenes from Kakawin Rāmāyaṇa.

→ Kakawin Rāmāyaṇa reliefs examples:

1. Rāma killing evil giant, Rāmāyaṇa bas-relief on Prambanan [Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=8611372]

2. Prambanan relief showing Rāvaṇa kidnapping Sītā while Jaṭāyū on the left tried to help her. [Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Reli%C3%ABf_op_de_aan_Shiva_gewijde_tempel_op_de_Candi_Lara_Jonggrang_oftewel_het_Prambanan_tempelcomplex_TMnr_10016191.jpg]

   

Jātaka tales reliefs:

Jātaka tales reliefs include reliefs depicting the story of Gautama Buddha and his previous lives, and sometimes depictions of other Buddhas or other Buddhist mythological figures.

→ Jātaka tales reliefs examples:

1. Scene illustrating a narrative from Karmavibhaṅga Sūtra on Borobudur Temple, Yogyakarta, Java, Indonesia [Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Reli%C3%ABf_O_89_op_de_verborgen_voet_van_de_Borobudur_TMnr_10015826.jpg]

   

2. Relief depicting Queen Māyā of Śākya kingdom on way to capital Lumbini to give birth to Siddhārtha Gautama who later became Gautama Buddha, on Borobudur Temple, Yogyakarta, Java, Indonesia [Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Queen_Maya%2C_Borobudur.jpg]

   

3. Relief depicting Siddhārtha Gautama cutting off his hair to become an ascetic, on Borobudur Temple, Yogyakarta, Java, Indonesia [Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Siddharta_Gautama_Borobudur.jpg]
   

   

Kakawin Arjunawiwāha reliefs:

{See:

Temple Architecture Decorative Elements: Javanese Temple Architecture Decorations - Kakawin Arjunawiwāha

}

Part of the largest Mahābhārata related kakawin literature, Arjunawiwāha was the first kakawin to appear in the East Javan period of the Javanese classical Sanatanist-Buddhist era in 11th-century CE. It was composed by Mpu Kanwa during the reign of King Airlangga, king of the Kahuripan Kingdom (c. 1019 CE – 1042 CE). It is estimated to have been finished in 1030 CE.

It tells the story of Arjuna Pāṇḍava, set during the time period when the Pāṇḍava brothers had lost everything to their rivals and cousins Dhārtarāṣṭras.

By performing ascetism, passing the tests of the deities and getting acknowledgement from Śiva, Arjuna obtains one or more divine weapons that hep him revive his family’s fortunes in the later Battle of Kurukṣētra.

→ Arjuna Wiwaha reliefs examples:

Arjuna Wiwaha reliefs on Candi Kedaton, Probolingo Regency, Java, Indonesia [Source: https://orientalarchitecture.com/sid/1840/indonesia/probolingo-regency-java/candi-kedaton]

Panels depicting celestial nymphs (apsarās) trying to disrupt Arjuna’s ascetism

Indra in guise of a hermit testing Arjuna

Arjuna and Śiva fighting

Arjuna bows to Śiva

Panels A14 & A15 (left) depicting a wounded Nivātakavaca with an arrow shot into his tongue’s tip on Candi Surowono, Jombang & Kediri Regencies, Java, Indonesia [Source: https://www.orientalarchitecture.com/sid/1866/indonesia/jombang-&-kediri-regencies-java/candi-surowono]

Other mythological stories reliefs:

Many other mythological stories can be depicted over Javanese temples, often common to both Sanatanist and Buddhist temples. These depictions include scenes from Purāṇas like Samudra-Manthana (Ocean churning), scenes from Pañcatantra etc.

→ Purāṇic reliefs examples:

Damaged relief depicting Samudra-Manthana over the western wall of Candi Kesiman Tengah, Mojokerto Regency and Batu City, Java, Indonesia [Source: Candi Kesiman Tengah]

→ Pañcatantra reliefs examples:

Pañcatantra panels of Candi Mendut, Magelang Regency, Java, Indonesia [Source: https://orientalarchitecture.com/sid/1801/indonesia/magelang-regency-java/candi-mendut]

Folktales:

Javanese temples may also feature depictions of folktales. Popular depictions include stories like story of Sri Tanjung / Banyuwangi.

→ Sri Tanjung / Banyuwangi depictions reliefs examples:

Sri Tanjung / Banyuwangi story depicted over Candi Surowono, Jombang & Kediri Regencies, Java, Indonesia [Source: https://orientalarchitecture.com/sid/1866/indonesia/jombang-&-kediri-regencies-java/candi-surowono]

Raden Sidapaksa and Sri Tanjung get married, and Sidapaksa takes her to his home

Raden Sidapaksa is filled with regret after killing Sri Tanjung and smelling fragrance rather than blood proving her innocence

Sri Tanjung arrives at the gate of realm of souls where the gatekeeper refuses to let her in

Sri Tanjung being revived and carried to her home by Durgā

Deities and Divine beings:

The commonly depicted deities and divine beings in Javanese temples are vrious forms of Viṣṇu, Śiva, Durgā, various Buddhas and various Bōdhīsattvas.

→ Buddha depiction reliefs examples:

1. Maitrēya Buddha depicted on wall of Candi Mendut, Magelang Regency, Java, Indonesia [Source: https://orientalarchitecture.com/sid/1801/indonesia/magelang-regency-java/candi-mendut]

2. Prajñāpāramitā Buddha depicted on wall of Candi Mendut, Magelang Regency, Java, Indonesia [Source: https://orientalarchitecture.com/sid/1801/indonesia/magelang-regency-java/candi-mendut]

→ Bōdhīsattva depiction reliefs examples:

1. Bōdhīsattva Mahāpratisarā, the main deity of the fivefold Pañcarakṣā set of protector deities, depicted on wall of Candi Mendut, Magelang Regency, Java, Indonesia [Source: https://orientalarchitecture.com/sid/1801/indonesia/magelang-regency-java/candi-mendut]

2. Bōdhīsattva Sarvanivāraṇaviṣkambhin depicted on wall of Candi Mendut, Magelang Regency, Java, Indonesia [Source: https://orientalarchitecture.com/sid/1801/indonesia/magelang-regency-java/candi-mendut]

3. Bōdhīsattva Kṣitigarbha depicted on wall of Candi Mendut, Magelang Regency, Java, Indonesia [Source: https://orientalarchitecture.com/sid/1801/indonesia/magelang-regency-java/candi-mendut]

4. Bōdhīsattva Vajrapāṇi depicted on wall of Candi Mendut, Magelang Regency, Java, Indonesia [Source: https://orientalarchitecture.com/sid/1801/indonesia/magelang-regency-java/candi-mendut]

Dvārapāla (Gate guardians):

Javanese temples usually employ a pair of statues of giants as gate guardians. The twin giants usually placed flanked the entrance in front of the temple, or in four cardinal points.

→ A guardian of one of Plaosan temples located in Bugisan village, Prambanan district, Klaten Regency, Central Java, Indonesia (built 9th century CE Central Javanese style [Source: File:Plaosan Temple Guardian.jpg]

→ One of the 8 guardians of main temple of Sewu temple complex in Klaten Regency, Central Java, Indonesia — this temple employs 8 guardians in 4 pairs present on the 4 cardinal directions. [Source: File:Java - Candi Sewu - 003 (8697399678).jpg]

Gateways:

Javanese and Balinese temple complexes can have 2 types of gateways:

• candi bentar — gateway usually constructed on the outer regions of the complex, constructed like a candi split cleanly into 2 symmetrical parts

• paduraksa — gateway usually constructed on the inner holier regions of the complex, constructed like a candi

The structure of a gateway consists of 3 parts:

• base containing a flight of steps

• body containing the entrance opening

• crown having a stepped profile characteristic of Candi

Paduraksa type of gateways seem to have originated earlier than Candi Bentar gateways. The early form of a Javanese roofed gateway can be found in a few 8th to 9th-century CE temple complexes in Central Java, e.g. Prambanan, Plaosan, and Ratu Boko. In the later period, these gateways took a more slender form. Reliefs showing a candi bentar and paduraksa have been discovered in 13th-century Candi Jago in East Java. The 13th to 14th-century CE paduraksa of East Java, such as those found from Sanatanist period of Singhasari and Majapahit, looks identical with the Balinese paduraksa.

Candi bentar gateway is thought to have originated during Sanatanist period of Singhasari and Majapahit in 13th-14th-century CE Java. Reliefs showing a candi bentar and paduraksa have been discovered in 13th-century CE Candi Jago in East Java. In the archaeological site of Trowulan – the 14th-century capital of the Majapahit empire – a candi bentar named Wriṅin Lawaṅ (Javanese "the Banyan Tree Gate"), is among the oldest candi bentar that still stands.

Central Javanese style gateways:

→ A triple paduraksa in Ratu Baka archaeological site in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. [Source: File:Ratuboko II.jpg]

→ Central Javanese style Paduraksa of Plaosan temple complex in Bugisan village, Prambanan district, Klaten Regency, Central Java, Indonesia (built 8th-9th century CE). [Source: File:Prambanam - Candi Plaosan - 021 (8618109538).jpg]

Eastern Javanese style gateways:

Paduraksa

→ Bajang Ratu gate in Trowulan archaeological site — a tall slender gateway constructed from red bricks [Source: File:Bajang Ratu Gate Trowulan.jpg]

Candi Bentar

→ Wriṅin Lawaṅ (Banyan Tree Gate) — the oldest known East Java style Candi bentar, dating to 14th century CE [Source: File:Wringin Lawang, Trowulan.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Row of candi bentar in Cetho Temple Complex on Mount Lawu, on the border of Central Java and East Java provinces, Indonesia [Source: File:Looking down from the top of Cetho Temple, 2016-10-13.jpg]

Temples and temple complexes:

Terminology:

Besides a main temple, a Javanese style temple complex has multiple types of subsidiary temples:

• Candi Apit ():

Differences in Central and Eastern Javanese style temples:

Dr. R Soekmono in the book Pengantar Sejarah Kebudayaan Indonesia 2 described a number of differences between the the 2 main styles of Javanese temple architecture, but while grouping Sumatran and Balinese architecture styles with Eastern Javanese.

• Central Javanese style temples and related structures tend to be bulky, with stepped roof sections, usually consisting of 3 parts. The pinnacles are either stūpa shaped (Buddhist temples) or vajra shaped (Sanatanist temples). Entrances would be made with Kāla-Makara (Kāla head flanked by Makara motifs) decoration, with Kāla having no lower jaw. The layout of the complexes is usually concentric and symmetrical, with main temple being located in the center of the complex surrounded by smaller perwara temples in regular rows. The temples usually face east.

• Eastern Javanese style temples and related structures tend to be tall and slender. The multiple parts of stepped sections form a combined roof structure smoothly. The pinnacles are either cylinder shaped (Buddhist temples) or cube shaped (Sanatanist temples). The entrances have only Kāla head decorations, with both upper and lower jaws. The layout of the complexes is usually linear, asymmetric, following topography of the site, with main temple located in the back or furthermost from the entrance, often located in the highest ground of the complex, perwara temples being located in front of the main temple — the temples are constructed like stepped pyramids. The temples mostly face west.

→ Kalasan temple a.k.a. Candi Kalibening, an 8th century CE Buddhist temple in Kalasan District of Sleman Regency, Special Region of Yogyakarta, Indonesia — Central Javanese style temple, with stūpa pinnacles visible on the upper storey. The side wall has the image of Kāla-Makara on the entrance [Source: File:Kalasan Temple from the north-east, 23 November 2013.jpg]

→ Layout model of Prambanan Temple Complex (located in Prambanan Temple Compounds on the border of Yogyakarta and Central Java) — the layout is Central Javanese style, with the main temple being surrounded by smaller temples on all sides. The temples show a transition towards Eastern Javanese style, being tall and slender, but with Central Javanese style vajra pinnacles and Kāla-Makara entrance decorations. (Built 9th century CE) [Source: File:Prambanan Architectural Model.jpg]

→ Candi Gunung Gangsir located in Gunung Gangsir village, Beji subdistrict, Pasuruan Regency, East Java, Indonesia — it is an 11th century CE temple that combines Central and Eastern Javanese styles. The temple structure was made from red bricks, which later became a common temple building material in the region during Majapahit period (c. 14th to 15th century), as demonstrated by Pari and Jabung temples nearby. However, the design, shape, proportion and decorations are more similar to Central Javanese temples from earlier period; also the temple faces East-SouthEast, while most East Javanese style temple face west. [Source: File:035 Main Entrance, Gunung Gangsir (39519459575).jpg]

→ Candi Brahu, part of Trowulan archaeological site in Trowulan Subdistrict, Mojokerto Regency, East Java, Indonesia — the temple long with the rest of the site dates back to 14th-15th century CE. It is constructed using red bricks (more common in Eastern Javanese style) [Source: File:Brahu Temple Trowulan.jpg]

→ The 15th century CE Eastern Javanese style main temple of Candi Cetho on the western slope of Mount Lawu on the border between Central and East Java provinces of Indonesia. The pinnacle consists of stylized cube resting on stepped pedestals. [Source: File:Central building, Cetho Temple, 2016-10-13.jpg]

Central Javanese style:

→ Arjuna Temple of Dieng Temple Complex (Built mid-7th to 8th century CE) [Source: File:Candi Arjuna side view.jpg]

→ Candi Badit in Karang Besuki village, Dau subdistrict, Malang Regency, East Java, Indonesia — it is the oldest temple in East Java province, but follows Central Javanese architecture. It dates back to 8th century CE. [Source: File:039 Stairway to Inner Sanctum, Candi Badut (40417064281).jpg]

→ Candi Cangkuang in Leles, Garut Regency, West Java, Indonesia — it features liṅgam pinnacles all over the upper 3 levels that form the roof, as well as the main pinnacle. (built 8th century CE) [Source: File:Cangkuang 3.jpg]

→ The concentric grid pattern of Sewu temple complex — the main temple is located in the centre, surrounded by subsidiary temples (built 8th century CE) [Source: File:Sewu Aerial view.jpg]

→ Banyunibo in Cepit hamlet, Bokoharjo village, Prambanan, Sleman Regency, Yogyakarta, Indonesia — a temple with single stūpa as pinnacle (built 9th century CE Medang era) [Source: File:Banyunibo Temple, 2014-05-31 01.jpg]

Eastern Javanese style:

→ Candi Dial in Rejokidal village, Tumpang district, East Java, Indonesia [Source: File:Candi Kidal A.JPG]

→ Candi Jawi in Prigen, Pasuruan, East Java, Indonesia — the base is made of black stones, while the upper parts are made from white stones. Its pinnacle is a cube-stūpa combination. The temple is dedicated to Kertanegara, the last king of Singhasari. The entrance has the Kala motif over it. (built late 13th century CE Singhasari period) [Source: File:Candi Jawi A.JPG]

Intermediate style:

→ Temples of Prambanan Temple Complex feature Central Javanese style Vajra pinnacles and Kāla-Makara motifs, but are tall and slender like temples of Eastern Javanese style [Source: File:Prambanan Java245.jpg]

Footnotes

• Salakanagara - Wikipedia

• Tarumanagara - Wikipedia

• Kutai - Wikipedia

• Kalingga Kingdom - Wikipedia

• Galuh Kingdom - Wikipedia

• Sunda Kingdom - Wikipedia

• Mataram Kingdom - Wikipedia

• Warmadewa dynasty - Wikipedia

• Kris - Wikipedia

• Gunung Kawi - Wikipedia

• Singhasari - Wikipedia

• Majapahit - Wikipedia

• Raden Wijaya - Wikipedia

1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarumanagara

2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kutai#Kingdoms_of_Kutai

3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalingga_kingdom

4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galuh_Kingdom

5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunda_Kingdom