Temple Architecture Styles : Čaṃ architecture

Čaṃ architecture¹ developed in Campā², a collection of Čaṃ polities that extended across the coast of what is today central and southern Vietnam from ~2nd century CE until 1832 CE, when it was annexed by Việt Nam (Nguyễn dynasty).

Čaṃ is the self designation of Čaṃ people. The kingdom / region was known variously as Nagaracampa (Saṁskr̥ta: नगरचम्प), Champa (ꨌꩌꨛꨩ) in modern Cham, and Châmpa (ចាម្ប៉ា) in the Khmer inscriptions, Chiêm Thành in Viet, Campa in Malay, Zhànchéng (Guanhua: 占城) in Chinese records, and al-Ṣanf (Arabic: صَنْف) in Middle Eastern Muslim records.

Development

2nd century CE – 8th century CE

• Lâm Ấp (192 CE – 629 CE)³

Lâm Ấp was known to the Chinese as Línyì (林邑) in Guanhua and Lam Yap in Cantonese and to the Viet as Lâm Ấp (Sino-Viet pronunciation of 林邑). Lâm Ấp, the oldest known Čaṃ polity, was founded in 192 CE in the region of modern Huế by Khu Liên, a local leader rebelling against Hàn dynasty.

From its neighbour Vnum (Funan) (precursor to Kambuja empire) to the west, Lâm Ấp soon came under the influence of Indian civilization. Scholars locate the historical beginnings of Campā in 4th century CE, when the process of Indianization was well underway. It was in this period that the Čaṃ people began to create stone inscriptions in both Saṁskr̥ta and in their own language, for which they created a unique script.

Võ Cạnh inscription or Inscription C. 40⁴ dated variously between 2nd century CE to late 5th century CE indicates contacts with India

→ The towers of Po Sa Nu (Pho Hai) near Phan Thiết in Bình Thuận Province, south-eastern Vietnam may be the oldest extant Čaṃ buildings. In style, they exhibit the influence of pre-Kambuja empire Cambodia. [Source: File:ChamMuiNe.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

7th century CE – 8th century CE

• Campādēśa

  • Gaṅgārāja dynasty (629 CE – 740 CE)

  • Vicitrasāgara dynasty (757 CE – c. 854 CE)

Polities:

With ascension of Kandarpadharma of Gaṅgārāja dynasty to the throne, Campādēśa (Campā kingdom) officially came into being. Gaṅgārāja dynasty ruled Campā till ~740 CE, after which it disappeared with unknown causes.

Temples:

By the second half of 7th century CE, royal temples were beginning to appear at Mỹ Sơn, as part of Mỹ Sơn E1 Style. The temples were mainly constructed for Śiva, and sometimes for Viṣṇu. Works of this style reflect foreign influence from a variety of sources, primarily from pre-Kambuja empire Cambodia, but also from Dvāravatī Art , Javanese Art and Southern Indian Art.

→ Kalan E7 of Mỹ Sơn (Dated to 7th-8th century CE) [Source: Champa Ruins, My Son, Vietnam]

9th century CE – 10th century CE

• Campādēśa

  • Bhr̥gu dynasty/Urōja dynasty (875 CE – 982 CE)

Polities:

By at least 9th century CE, Campā had began to influence the neighbouring Kambuja empire, reflected in the usage of bricks in constructing the early Kambuja temples.

In 875 CE, Čaṃ king Indravarman II founded a new dynasty at Indrapura, in present-day Đồng Dương village in Quảng Nam region of central Vietnam.

The period in which Buddhism reigned as the principal religion of Campā came to an end in ~925 CE. With the religious shift from Buddhism back to Shaivism around the beginning of 10th century CE, the center of Čaṃ religion also shifted from Indrapura (Đồng Dương) back to Mỹ Sơn.

Temples:

The temple architecture styles developed during this period were Indrapura’s Đồng Dương Style, Mỹ Sơn’s Mỹ Sơn A1 Style and Khương Mỹ’s Khương Mỹ style.

Chánh Lộ sculpture style also developed during this period. This style incorporate simplification of jewellery, new style of hair and clothes, lack of smile and the return of strong facial features. It is the transitional style between Trà Kiệu and Tháp Mẫm sculpture styles.

Departing from the religious traditions of his predecessors, who were predominantly Shaivists, Indravarman II founded Mahāyāna Buddhist monastery of Đồng Dương, and dedicated the central temple to Lōkēśvara. Scholars have termed the artistic style typical of Indrapura as Đồng Dương Style after this complex.

→ Sang tower in Dong Duong Buddhist monastery [Source: Preservation of Dong Duong Buddhist monastery]

The period in which Buddhism reigned as the principal religion of Campā came to an end in ~925 CE, at which time Đồng Dương Style also began to give way to subsequent artistic styles linked with the restoration of Shaivism as the national religion.

With the religious shift from Buddhism back to Shaivism around the beginning of 10th century CE, the center of Čaṃ religion also shifted from Dong Duong back to Mỹ Sơn. Rulers of Bhr̥gu/Urōja dynasty of Indrapura built a number of temples at Mỹ Sơn in 9th-10th centuries CE. Their temples at Mỹ Sơn came to define a new architectural and artistic style, called by scholars as Mỹ Sơn A1 Style, again in reference to a particular foundation at Mỹ Sơn regarded emblematic for the style.

→ Mỹ Sơn A1 Kalan (left) and its position in Mỹ Sơn sanctuary [Source: Champa Ruins, Mỹ Sơn, Vietnam]

Near contemporaneous to Mỹ Sơn A1 Style was development of Khương Mỹ Style which flourished in first half of 10th century CE in present-day Khương Mỹ village.

→ Khương Mỹ Towers at Khương Mỹ village, Quang Nam Province, Vietnam (Dated 10th century CE) [Source: Khuong My Towers, Quang Nam Province, Vietnam]

→ Chánh Lộ style sculptures — Chánh Lộ style sculptures incorporate simplification of jewellery, new style of hair and clothes, lack of smile and the return of strong facial features. It is the transitional style between Trà Kiệu and Tháp Mẫm. [Source: Screenshot from Category:Chanh Lo style - Wikimedia Commons]

10th century CE – 14th century CE

• Campādēśa

  • Urōja dynasty (1044 CE – 1060 CE)

  • Pralayēśvara dynasty (1074 CE – 1145 CE)

  • 11th dynasty (1145 CE – 1318 CE)

  • 12th dynasty (1318 CE – 1390 CE)

  • Vr̥ṣu dynasty (1390 CE – 1444/46 CE)

  • 14th dynasty (1441 CE – 1471 CE)

  • Pāṇḍuraṅga autonomous princedom (813 CE – 1692 CE)⁵

Polities:

Pāṇḍuraṅga was an autonomous princedom inside Campā. Since 13th century CE, it was ruled by local dynasties that were relatively independent from the court of the “king of kings” at Vijaya, central Campā. Pāṇḍuraṅga revolted against central Campā authority during the reign of Jaya Paramēśvaravarman I who established Urōja dynasty.

In 12th century CE, a new capital was established at Vijaya, in present-day Bình Định province of Vietnam.

→ Chien Dan inscription, near Chien Dan Towers, Quang Nam Province, Vietnam — this is an incomplete inscription, but provides valuable records of the site [Source: Chien Dan Towers, Quang Nam Province, Vietnam]

Temples:

After 10th century CE, Campā’s art went into gradual decline.

Tháp Mẫm Style emerged in 11th century CE, and continued till 14th century CE. One of the most original motifs of Tháp Mẫm period was the sculpting in stone of a row of female breasts around the base of a pedestal — the motif first emerged in 10th century CE and became characteristic of Tháp Mẫm Style.

Vijaya's architecture distinguishes it from other Čaṃ centers, because it used a combination of stone and brick elements, while most other Čaṃ structures only used bricks. This suggests some influence from Kambuja Empire of Cambodia. It also points to the relative abundance of labour in Vijaya compared to other Čaṃ centres of powers, because processing stones for construction was more labour-intensive than the production of bricks. Vijaya's style of architecture seems to have been dominant throughout Campā for some time, given the later classification of the architecture from the period between 12th and 14th centuries CE as 'Binh Dinh style'.

→ Kōṣagr̥ha (left) and main kalan (right) of Banh It Complex in Qui Nhon, Vietnam (c. 11th century CE) [Source: Banh It Towers, Qui Nhon, Vietnam]

→ Thap Doi Twin Towers, Qui Nhon, Vietnam (Built late-12th - early-13th century CE) [Source: Thap Doi Twin Towers, Qui Nhon, Vietnam]

→ Trà Kiệu style sculptures (first half of 10th century CE) — Čaṃ monuments at Trà Kiệu in Quảng Nam Province have been destroyed but a number of sculpture pieces associated with the site remain and are preserved in museums. [Source: Screenshot from Art of Champa - Wikipedia]

→ Yang Mum Style sculptures (14th-15th century CE) [Source: Category:Yang Mum style - Wikimedia Commons]

Structural Details

Materials

Red bricks

Most of the temples at Mỹ Sơn and other sites were made of red brick, and only one (the temple labelled "B1" of Mỹ Sơn) was made of stone. The decorative carvings on the Čaṃ temples were cut directly onto the bricks themselves, rather than onto sandstone slabs inserted into brick walls.

Stones

Statues were often made of stone, but could have had brick supports. Reliefs over pediments could also be made of stone.

Metal

Iron beams could be used to provide structural supports, but would be otherwise used sparingly.

Decorative Elements

Decorative elements of Čaṃ temples are mostly restricted to outside, over external walls. The interior was often left unadorned.

Stairs and railings:

Stair steps could start with a decorated stone called moonstone.

→ Moonstone in front of stairs of Mỹ Sơn F1 Kalan [Source: Champa Ruins, My Son, Vietnam]

Reliefs

Kāla-makara/Kīrtimukha motifs:

→ Usually a series of ferocious faces is carved in a single row:

1. Kāla-makara/Kīrtimukha motifs at Mỹ Sơn Group G temple complex (Dated 12th century CE) [Source: Champa Ruins, Mỹ Sơn, Vietnam]

2. Highly eroded Kāla-makara/Kīrtimukha motifs at Chien Dan Towers, Quang Nam Province, Vietnam [Source: Chien Dan Towers, Quang Nam Province, Vietnam]

Animal reliefs:

→ Animal relief examples:

1. Elephants uprooting lotus plants, at Chien Dan Towers, Quang Nam Province, Vietnam [Source: Chien Dan Towers, Quang Nam Province, Vietnam]

2. Mỹ Sơn A1 style relief of an elephant (10th century CE) [Source: File:Elephant on bas relief.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

Plant reliefs:

→ Plant relief examples:

1. Vegetal relief pilasters over Khuong My towers [Source: Khuong My Towers, Quang Nam Province, Vietnam]

Figure reliefs (non-deities):

Figure reliefs could be carved in one of two ways:

1. Over string courses with difference between bricks clearly visible. This is similar to relief carvings of Thai and Kambuja architecture

2. Over a single panel, which is a much more common carving method worldwide.

→ Figure relief examples:

1. Relief of figure holding hands, inside Mỹ Sơn F1 Kalan [Source: Champa Ruins, My Son, Vietnam]

2. A standing figure inside a transept, with the transept having an arched top and 2 “columns” (Dated 12th century CE) [Source: Champa Ruins, Mỹ Sơn, Vietnam]

3. Musician figures at Chien Dan Towers, Quang Nam Province, Vietnam [Source: Chien Dan Towers, Quang Nam Province, Vietnam]

4. A series of dancers and standing figures, formed over a panels stacked over each other, at Chien Dan Towers, Quang Nam Province, Vietnam [Source: Chien Dan Towers, Quang Nam Province, Vietnam]

Figure reliefs (deities):

Reliefs of deities are normally found over upper sections of temple buildings, mainly pediments.

→ Deity figure reliefs examples:

1. Mahiṣāsura-mardinī Durgā carved over a sandstone pediment, at Chien Dan Towers, Quang Nam Province, Vietnam [Source: Chien Dan Towers, Quang Nam Province, Vietnam]

2. Sandstone image of Padmanābha-Viṣṇu and Brahmā, Mỹ Sơn E1 Style )7th century CE) [Source: File:Vishnu Brahma My Son E1.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

3. Naṭarāja Śiva relief at a tympanum [Source: File:Tympan dun temple Cham de My Son (4399069905).jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

4. Pediment with Garuḍa and a nāga from Trà Kiệu, Quảng Nam Province, Vietnam. [Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Sandstone_pediment_with_Garuda_and_n%C4%81ga_%2810th_century%29%2C_Museum_of_Vietnamese_History%2C_Ho_Chi_Minh_City_-_20121014.JPG/1920px-Sandstone_pediment_with_Garuda_and_n%C4%81ga_%2810th_century%29%2C_Museum_of_Vietnamese_History%2C_Ho_Chi_Minh_City_-_20121014.JPG]

   

Other reliefs:

→ Stucco relief of wedge-shaped central elements surrounded by U-shaped garlands, over Chien Dan Towers, Quang Nam Province, Vietnam [Source: Chien Dan Towers, Quang Nam Province, Vietnam]

→ Lozenge-shaped decorations over north wall of southern tower of Khuong My towers [Source: Khuong My Towers, Quang Nam Province, Vietnam]

Corbelling

Čaṃ temples utilise corbelling to construct arches and roofs; true arches seem to be absent.

→ Corbelled Arches examples:

1. Kalan of Mỹ Sơn Group G temple complex (Dated 12th century CE) [Source: Champa Ruins, Mỹ Sơn, Vietnam]

2. Mỹ Sơn C1 tower entrance [Source: Champa Ruins, Mỹ Sơn, Vietnam]

→ Corbelled ceilings examples:

1. Mỹ Sơn B3 tower interior [Source: Champa Ruins, Mỹ Sơn, Vietnam]

2. Mỹ Sơn C2 tower interior [Source: Champa Ruins, Mỹ Sơn, Vietnam]

Icons

Čaṃ temple icons are usually statues made of stone.

The deity icons are housed inside kalan, with subsidiary icons can be found in other structures or kept in open.

Deity icons:

The surviving deity icons housed in Čaṃ temples mostly include statues of Viṣṇu, Śiva, Buddha and Bōdhīsattvas.

Śiva icons:

Śiva icons include aniconic representations in form of Śiva-liṅgaṁs and iconic representations in form of Śiva statues.

Śiva-liṅgaṁs in Čaṃ temples can be found both with and without pedestal (yōni). Śiva-liṅgaṁs often followed a fixed shape : square base, octagonal mid-section and cylindrical uppermost section.

→ Standalone Śiva-liṅgaṁ examples:

1. A Jaṭāliṅga historically housed in a Mỹ Sơn E Group Temple [Source: My Son Vietnam | The Temple Trail]

→ Liṅgam-yōni pair examples: for a given Liṅgam-yōni pair, the yōni would usually maintain the same shape throughout. Most examples have circular or rectangular yōni pedestals.

1. Vāmēśvara Liṅgam erected by king Vikrāntavarman in 8th century CE — A circular Liṅgam-yōni pair with Liṅgam no longer present, historically housed in Mỹ Sơn E6 Temple [Source: Champa Ruins, Mỹ Sơn, Vietnam]

2. Bhadrēśvara liṅgaṁ-yōni pair with only pedestal extant, housed in Mỹ Sơn A1 Temple [Source: Champa Ruins, Mỹ Sơn, Vietnam]

3. Trà Kiệu Style Liṅgam-yōni pair — a circular yōni supporting a cylindrical Liṅgam (Dated to 10th century CE) [Source: File:Tra Kieu Pedestal.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

4. Liṅgam-yōni pair with rectangular yōni, historically housed in Mỹ Sơn Group G temple (Dated 12th century CE) [Source: Champa Ruins, Mỹ Sơn, Vietnam]

→ Śiva statue examples:

1. Śiva statue in Mỹ Sơn Group E and Group F temple complex [Source: Champa Ruins, My Son, Vietnam]

2. Mỹ Sơn A1 style Śiva statue [Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Vietnam%2C_shiva%2C_da_thap_banh_it_%28torre_d%27argento%29%2C_stile_di_transiz._tra_my_son_A1_e_thap_mam%2C_Xi-Xii_sec%2C_01.JPG/800px-Vietnam%2C_shiva%2C_da_thap_banh_it_%28torre_d%27argento%29%2C_stile_di_transiz._tra_my_son_A1_e_thap_mam%2C_Xi-Xii_sec%2C_01.JPG]

   

Viṣṇu icons:

Viṣṇu icons usually depict Viṣṇu riding Garuḍa,

→ Viṣṇu icons examples:

1. Garuḍāsana Viṣṇu (8th-9th century CE) [Source: File:Vietnam, vishnu garudasana, dalle montagne di marmo presso ngu hanh son, prolungam. dello stile my son E1, VIII-IX sec.JPG - Wikimedia Commons]

Buddhist icons:

Buddhist icons consist of the various Buddhas, Bōdhīsattvas and related figures

→ Buddhist icons examples:

1. Amitābha Buddha [Source: File:Buddha at Phat Tich Temple.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

2. Bōdhīsattva Lōkēśvara (mid-7th century CE) [Source: File:Boddhisattva Lokesvara, Ngai Hoa Thuong, Tra Vinh, 7th-8th century AD, sandstone - Museum of Vietnamese History - Ho Chi Minh City - DDSC06071.JPG - Wikimedia Commons]

Durgā icons:

Durgā’s icons are less common. She may be shown in any of her various forms.

→ Durgā icons examples:

Statue of Umā holding two props by her hands [Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Cham_Uma_angel.png]

Vināyaka icons:

Vināyaka is usually shown in elephant headed form, as is usual in rest of South Asia and South-East Asia.

→ Vināyaka icons examples:

Seated Vināyaka statue [Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/0040223_Ganesha%2C_Cham_Hindu_deity%2C_Museum_of_Cham_Sculpture%2C_Da_Nang_Vietnam.jpg/800px-0040223_Ganesha%2C_Cham_Hindu_deity%2C_Museum_of_Cham_Sculpture%2C_Da_Nang_Vietnam.jpg]

Seated Vināyaka statue housed in Middlebury College Museum of Art, Middlebury, Vermont, USA. [Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Ganesha%2C_Vietnam%2C_Champa_kingdom%2C_9th-10th_century_AD%2C_stone_-_Middlebury_College_Museum_of_Art_-_Middlebury%2C_VT_-_DSC08236.jpg/800px-Ganesha%2C_Vietnam%2C_Champa_kingdom%2C_9th-10th_century_AD%2C_stone_-_Middlebury_College_Museum_of_Art_-_Middlebury%2C_VT_-_DSC08236.jpg]

Pedestal housing Vināyaka statue in Mỹ Sơn E5 Temple [Source: Champa Ruins, My Son, Vietnam]

Subsidiary icons:

Subsidiary icons include Nandi, Gaja-simha (elephant-lion hybrid), Garuḍa etc.

→ Gaja-simha near Chien Dan Towers, Quang Nam Province, Vietnam [Source: Chien Dan Towers, Quang Nam Province, Vietnam]

→ Nandi:

1. Nandi (7th-8th century CE), kept at Museum of Cham Sculpture, Danang, Vietnam [Source: File:Nandin Tra Kieu.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]
   

   

Temple complex

Any general Čaṃ structure would have 3 false entrances and one actual entrance. This is true for all parts of a temple complex.

A general Čaṃ temple complex has following parts:

• Kalan: brick sanctuary, typically in the form of a tower, used to house a deity

• Maṇḍapa : entry hallway contiguous with a sanctuary

• Kōṣagr̥ha or "fire-house" : typically with a saddle-shaped roof, used to house the valuables belonging to the deity or to cook for the deity

• Gopura : gate-tower leading into a walled temple complex

→ Gopura:

1. Gopura C2 of Mỹ Sơn Group C temple complex [Source: Champa Ruins, Mỹ Sơn, Vietnam]

2. Gopura of Plo Klaung Garai temple complex in Phan Rang, Ninh Thuận province, southern Vietnam (Built 13th century CE) [Source: expatolife.com/po-klong-garai-temple-phan-rang-ninh-thuan-vietnam/]

→ Kōṣagr̥ha:

1. Kōṣagr̥ha of Mỹ Sơn Group A temple complex [Source: File:Mỹ Sơn B5.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

2. The saddle shaped kōṣagr̥ha of Plo Klaung Garai temple complex (Built 13th century CE) [Source: Po Klong Garai Cham temple, an architectural marvel of Ninh Thuan]

→ Maṇḍapa:

1. Maṇḍapa of Mỹ Sơn Group G temple complex (Dated 12th century CE) [Source: Champa Ruins, Mỹ Sơn, Vietnam]

→ Kalan:

1. Kalan E7 of Mỹ Sơn (Dated to 7th-8th century CE) [Source: Champa Ruins, My Son, Vietnam]

2. Kalan and Maṇḍapa of Plo Klaung Garai temple complex (Built 13th century CE) [Source: Po Klong Garai Temple Phan Rang Vietnam | Expatolife]

Sub-styles:

The artistic styles of Čaṃ art are classified according to the sites or locations of Campā remnants recorded by Henri Parmentier in 1912-1918, Philippe Stern in his book The Art of Champa (former Annam) and its Evolution published 1942, Jean Boisselier in Statuary of Champa (1963) and by Jean F Hubert in The Art of Champa (2005). The fact that many temples at the same location had been constructed throughout the history of Campā makes this type of classification extremely complex. Regardless, this classification it is still widely used and can be simplified according to the requirement as outlined below:

• Mỹ Sơn E1 (7th century CE – 8th century CE)

• Đồng Dương (9th century CE – 10th century CE)

• Mỹ Sơn A1 (10th century CE – 11th century CE)

• Khương Mỹ (first half of 10th century CE)

• Trà Kiệu (second half of 10th century CE

• Chánh Lộ (end of 10th century CE – mid-11th century CE)

• Tháp Mẫm (11th century CE – 14th century CE)

Mỹ Sơn E1 Style:

Works of this style reflect foreign influence from a variety of sources, primarily from pre-Kambuja empire Cambodia, Dvāravatī Art, Javanese Art and Southern Indian Art.

→ Ruined E1 buildings undergoing reconstruction through anastylosis. [Source: File:My Son E group.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Floorplans of Group E and Group F (Built 7th-8th century CE) [Source: Champa Ruins, My Son, Vietnam]

→ Screenshot from Art of Champa - Wikipedia

Đồng Dương Style:

Đồng Dương style of sculpture has been described as a highly original style of "artistic extremism", "with exaggerated, almost excessively stylized features". The figures are characterized by their thick noses and lips and by the fact that they do not smile. Prominent motifs include scenes from the life of the Buddha, Buddhist monks, dharmapālas (guardians of the Buddhist law), dvarapālas (armed temple guardians), the bōdhīsattva Avalōkitēśvara, and the deity of compassion Tārā, who was also regarded as the spouse of Avalōkitēśvara.

→ Ruins of Đồng Dương (Indrapura) [Source: Preservation of Dong Duong Buddhist monastery]

→ Floorplan of Đồng Dương monastery complex [Source: File:Plan of Đồng Dương monastery complex full.svg - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Screenshot from Category:Dong Duong style - Wikimedia Commons

Khương Mỹ Style:

Khương Mỹ village in the Viet province of Quảng Nam houses a group of three Čaṃ towers dating from 10th century CE. The style of the towers and the artwork associated with them is transitional between Đồng Dương style and Mỹ Sơn A1 style. The style of Khương Mỹ also exhibits Kambuja and Javanese influence.

→ Khuong My temple complex [Source: File:Tháp Khương Mỹ, Quảng Nam.JPG - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Screenshot from Category:Khương Mỹ sculptures at the Museum of Cham Sculpture - Wikimedia Commons

Mỹ Sơn A1 Style:

The art of the Mỹ Sơn A1 style belongs to 10th and 11th centuries CE, a period of Sanatanist revival following the Buddhist period of Đồng Dương, and also a period of renewed influence from Java (Indonesia).

→ A1 temple would have looked like the following image [Source: File:My Son A1 schematic diagram.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

→ A kōṣagr̥ha of Mỹ Sơn A1 style [Source: File:Mỹ Sơn B5.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Main temple building (C1) of C Group [Source: File:My Son C1.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Floorplan of Group A [Source: Champa Ruins, Mỹ Sơn, Vietnam]

Trà Kiệu Style:

Although Čaṃ monuments at Trà Kiệu (in Quảng Nam Province of Vietnam) have been destroyed, a number of sculpture pieces associated with the site remain and are preserved in museums.

It is further divided into Trà Kiệu I Phase and Trà Kiệu II Phase. The largest difference between Trà Kiệu I and II Phase lie in the styles of roof tiles found at the site:

• Trà Kiệu I Phase is represented by the presence of roof tiles with textile impressions.

• Trà Kiệu II Phase roof tiles lack impressions and are instead decorated with motifs of human faces.

→ 10th century CE Trà Kiệu Style Liṅga-yōni pair [Source: File:Tra Kieu Pedestal.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Trà Kiệu Style Viṣṇu [Source: File:Visnu image from Trà Kiệu.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

Tháp Mẫm Style:

After 10th century CE, Čaṃ art went into gradual decline. Tháp Mẫm Style of 11th through 14th centuries CE is named for an archaeological site in Bình Định Province of Vietnam, formerly Vijaya.

One of the most original motifs of Tháp Mẫm period was the sculpting in stone of a row of female breasts around the base of a pedestal. The motif first emerged in 10th century CE and became characteristic of Tháp Mẫm Style.

→ A pedestal having leonine atlas at the corner flanked by rows of female breasts [Source: File:Pedestal Thap Mam.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Po Nagar temple complex in Nha Trang, Khanh Hoa province, Vietnam — In its most complete form, the complex probably consisted of 6 towers, in two parallel rows of three, but the south-west and center-west towers have vanished. The arrangement makes an interesting comparison with the brick towers of Lolei, near Angkor Wat in Cambodia, which were built at the end of 8th century CE. (Built mid-10th-13th century CE) [Source: File:Champa Po Nagar Nha Trang.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

→ 11th century CE Dương Long Towers at Vijaya [Source: File:Tháp Dương Long.JPG - Wikimedia Commons]

Other Styles:

A few Čaṃ architecture buildings may not be classifiable under aforementioned styles primarily due to destruction of monuments leading to little archaeological material to study.

→ Bang An Tower in Dien Ban district, Quang Nam Province, Vietnam — the only known octagonal Čaṃ structure. Like the majority of Campā monuments the tower is built mostly of brick. Instead of mortar, Čaṃ artisans used an extremely durable organic resin to 'glue' bricks to one another. This minimized spacing between the bricks, helping to prevent vegetation from gaining a toehold and forcing the monument apart one brick at a time. In the early 20th century CE, the the ruins of two square towers were still visible nearby, located immediately to the northeast and southwest, suggesting the Bang An site was part of a larger complex of monuments. (Built (9th to 11th century CE)

[Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Th%C3%A1p_B%E1%BA%B1ng_An%2C_%C4%90i%E1%BB%87n_B%C3%A0n%2C_Qu%E1%BA%A3ng_Nam.JPG/800px-Th%C3%A1p_B%E1%BA%B1ng_An%2C_%C4%90i%E1%BB%87n_B%C3%A0n%2C_Qu%E1%BA%A3ng_Nam.JPG]

rear showing the octagonal shape [Source: https://orientalarchitecture.com/sid/1359/vietnam/quang-nam-province/bang-an-tower]

Corbelled entrance [Source: https://orientalarchitecture.com/sid/1359/vietnam/quang-nam-province/bang-an-tower]

Roof of antechamber [Source: https://orientalarchitecture.com/sid/1359/vietnam/quang-nam-province/bang-an-tower]

Corbelled octagonal main tower; the top being open due to weathering [Source: https://orientalarchitecture.com/sid/1359/vietnam/quang-nam-province/bang-an-tower]

weathered gajasimha (elephant-lion) guardians [Source: https://orientalarchitecture.com/sid/1359/vietnam/quang-nam-province/bang-an-tower]

References

[1] Art of Champa - Wikipedia

[2] Champa - Wikipedia

[3] King of Champa - Wikipedia

[4] Nguyễn dynasty - Wikipedia

[5] Lâm Ấp - Wikipedia

[6] Lâm Ấp - Wikipedia

[7] Funan - Wikipedia

[8] Indravarman II (Champa) - Wikipedia

[9] Indrapura (Champa) - Wikipedia

[10] Panduranga (Champa) - Wikipedia

[11] Vijaya (Champa) - Wikipedia

[12] History of Champa

[13] Dvaravati art - Wikipedia

[14] Trà Kiệu - Wikipedia

[15] Vijaya (Champa) - Wikipedia

1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_of_Champa

2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Champa

3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A2m_%E1%BA%A4p

4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%B5_C%E1%BA%A1nh_inscription

5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panduranga_(Champa)