Temple Architecture Styles: Greater Nāgara Architecture family

This post discusses the temple architecture styles commonly grouped under Nāgara architecture in archaeological and historical works concerning the subject; the footnoted articles are examples.

Nāgara architecture family comprises of Nāgara Architecture, Kaḷiṅga Architecture and Māru-Gurjara Architecture -> the rest two being often grouped under Nāgara architecture in archaeological and historical works concerning temple architecture. These three architecture styles developed in overlapping regions and probably a high degree of influence. Bāṅlā Rēkhā deula architecture is usually considered distinct from Nāgara architecture, but its early examples are quite similar to early examples of other 3 architecture styles, and will also be covered in this post. The loosest definition may encompass Bundelkhand architecture and Tirhuta/Maithila architecture as well as well as some examples usually classified under Vesara architecture.

Temples classifiable under Nāgara architecture began to appear at least since 4th century CE under Gupta Empire (c. 320 CE – c. 550 CE). Nāgara architecture was influenced by Indo-Hellenic architecture, indicated by presence of fluted columns in temples until 9th century CE and usually tetrastyle-type prostyle porches in early temples (and many later temples as well). Its geographical reach is the largest among the major Indian temple architecture styles, with examples being found from north-eastern Pakistan till western Arunachal Pradesh and from Kashmir to Madhya Pradesh, with rare examples in southern India as well.

Temples classifiable under Kaḷiṅga architecture began to appear at least since 6th century CE under Śailōdbhava rule and became a recognised distinct architecture style at least since 13th century CE indicated by Amrutesvara Temple inscription of Seuṇa king Siṃhaṇa dated 1231 CE.

Kaḷiṅga architeture uses quite many terms distinct form either of Nāgara or Māru-Gurjara architecture, especially the usage of the term “bimāna” instead of prāsāda for the main sanctum structure of a temple.

The term Māru-Gurjara architecture was coined by historian Madhusudan Amilal Dhaky who describes its origins under Gurjara-Pratihāra rule in 8th century CE. However, traditional practitioners of this style term it Sōlāṅkī architecture after Caulukya (Sōlāṅkī) dynasty (c. 940 CE – 1244 CE), with the architecture style’s origin being consequently placed during and after 10th century CE.

Bāṅlā Rēkhā deula architecture began to appear at least since 9th century CE, although they were often, though not always, similar to Kaḷiṅga architecture temples in their early phase; many examples later on are also similar to temples under regular Kaḷiṅga architecture and Nāgara architecture.

Note : This post only discusses the development history of architecture styles. For structural and technical details, please visit the respective posts.

→ Edited image of Vishvanath Temple of Khajuraho Monument Group, Madhya Pradesh, India [Source: File:India-5749 - Visvanatha Temple - Flickr - archer10 (Dennis).jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

Development

Precursorial development : 4th century BCE – 4th century CE

• Magadha Empire

  • Maurya dynasty (322 BCE – 184 BCE)

  • Śuṅga dynasty (185 BCE – 73 BCE)

• Βaxlo kingdom (256 BCE – c.120 BCE)

• Indo-Hellenic kingdoms (200 BCE – 10 CE)

• Sātavāhana empire (Late 2nd century BCE – 3rd century CE)

• Mahāmēghavāhana empire (2nd or 1st century BC – 4th century CE)

• Indo-Śaka kingdoms (c. 150 BCE – 400 CE)

  • Northern Mahākṣatrapas (60 BCE – 2nd century CE)

  • Western Mahākṣatrapas (35 CE – 415 CE)

• Indo-Parθavan kingdom (19 CE – 226 CE)

• Kuṣāṇa empire (30 CE – 375 CE)

• Vindhyatabi Nāga kingdom (2nd century CE – 4th century CE)

• Padmavati Nāga kingdom (early 3rd century CE – mid-4th century CE)

Temples:

Starting with Mauryas, Candraśālā motif would be increasingly developed further and adopted under the reign of various kingdoms & empires as seen the various rock-cut caves of this time period.

→ Candraśālā motif examples:

1. Lomas Rishi Cave of Barabar-Nagarjuni Ajivikaist Cave complex is the first known structure to feature Candraśālā motif. (Built 3rd century BCE under Maurya empire) [Source: File:Lomas Rishi entrance.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

2. Caves of Guntupalli Buddhist Monuments near Kamavarapukota, West Godavari district, Andhra Pradesh, India (dated 200–0 BCE) [Source: Buddhist Monuments - Guntupalli and jeelakarragudem Caves]

3. Cave 12 (dated 2nd or 1st century BCE) of Ajanta Cave cluster, Aurangabad district, Maharashtra, India [Source: File:094 Cave 12, Vihara Cells (34123037202).jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

4. Inside Bedse Caves in Maval taluka, Pune District, Maharashtra, India (Built 1st century BCE; Sātavāhanas) [Source: File:BEDSE CAVES Pune (by Amit Mahadik).jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Free standing temples can be seen in Gandhāra region and Gangetic plains, and other regions of western, central and northern India since this period onwards:

1. An elliptical Vāsudēva Temple in Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh, India — Heliodorus Pillar was a part of this temple’s complex. Further, the foundations for all the major components of a Sanatanist temple – garbhagr̥ha (sanctum), pradakṣiṇāpatha (circumambulation passage), antarāla (antechamber next to sanctum) and maṇḍapa (gathering hall) – were found. (Dated to 2nd century BCE) [Source: File:Elliptic plan of the Temple next to the Heliodorus pillar, Besnagar.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

2. Free-standing Apsidal temples began to emerge in Indian subcontinent since 1st century BCE. These can be regarded as precursorial developments to both Greater Nāgara architecture family and Vesara architecture family. {They were already being constructed as rock-cut structures since 2nd century BCE as seen in Ajanta caves of Maharashtra, India}:

   1. Buddhist apsidal temple remains in Adurru village of East Godavari district, Andhra Pradesh, India — may be considered as precursorial development to Telugu Temple Architecture. It is part of the Buddhist monastic complex established by princess Saṅghamitrā (Built probably 2nd century BCE under Mauryas) [Source: A Tale of Two Temples - Ghumakkar - Inspiring travel experiences.]

      

   2. Trivikrama Temple in Ter, Maharashtra, India — may be considered as precursorial development to Marāṭhī Temple Architecture. The main structure (apsidal part) was constructed in 1st century BCE [Source: File:Trivikram Temple Ter 2.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

      

   3. Remains of an apsidal Jaina temple atop Udayagiri, Odisha, India are among the earliest free-standing temples of Kaḷiṅga region — can be considered a precursorial development to Kaḷiṅga architecture specifically. (Dated to 1st century BCE under Mahāmēghavāhana dynasty) [Source: Udayagiri: Cave 1 & Hilltop Apsidal Temple Base]

      

   4. Buddhist apsidal temple remains in Thotlakonda Buddhist Complex on a hill near Bheemunipatnam, Visakhapatnam district, Andhra Pradesh, India. (Dated sometime between 2nd century BCE and 2nd century CE) [Source: Hilltop monasteries on the seaside - Ghumakkar - Inspiring travel experiences.]

      

   5. A ruined temple complex in Sonkh, Mathura district, Uttar Pradesh, India (Original structure dated to 1st century BCE, reconstructed several times in 1st century CE) [Source: Dilapidated Ancient Temples at Sonkh, Mathura - Bharatvoice]

3. A brick temple in Pawaya village, Gwalior district, Madhya Pradesh, India. It is a three terraced structure raised upon a high raised plinth. There are ordinary passages built into this plinth which leads a visitor inside onto the first storey of the temple. The first tier above the plinth is built with pilasters all around, all of bricks. Above this tire are two more tiers. There would have been more tiers as the structure looks pyramidal in shape however those have not survived now. Stairs on two sides leads to the second tier. The original inner temple has been assigned to the second half of 3rd century CE or the first half of 4th century CE based upon finding of a Nāga king. Historian MB Garde mentions that the decorative pilasters and arches on the faces of platform are later than those found in the cave architecture of 2nd century CE but definitely before the Gupta period of 5th century CE. Later additions were made in 5th century CE as evident from the inscriptions found on bricks. The temple might be dedicated to Viṣṇu, as believed from an image found during excavation though it is not a strong evidence. [Source: Puratattva]

4. Muṇḍēśvarī Temple in Ramgarh Village on Mundeshwari Hills of Kaimur plateau, Bihar, India. Dated to possibly 108 CE, with inscriptions dating to 7th century CE found inside [Source: http://tourism.bihar.gov.in/en/destinations/kaimur/mundeshwari-devi-temple]

A large degree of Hellenic art and architecture influence was brought into India by Hellene-origin and Hellene-influenced kingdoms and empires during this time period. Fluted columns were initially used by them and then adopted by polities influenced by them.

In particular, anthropomorphic depictions of Buddhas would become common as part of Gandharan art and Mathura art. Kuṣāṇa art blended the tradition of Helleno-Buddhist art of Gandhara, influenced by Hellenistic artistic canons, and the more Indian art of Mathura. The Hellenes were also the ones to develop, among other structures, various porticoes, of which the distyle and tetrastyle were regularly adopted into Nāgara style temples.

→ Fluted columns in religious structures of Non-Hellenic polities mark their appearance at least since this period. Most examples have the vertical fluting as also commonly seen in Hellenic architecture temples.

1. Garuḍa Standard (Heliodorus Pillar) in Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh, India (Dated to 113 BCE, erected by Hellenic ambassador Heliodorus in Śuṅga territory, dedicated to the deity Vāsudēva) [Source: File:Heliodorus pillar with elevation.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

2. Uparkot Caves of Junagadh, Gujarat, India. Such columns could be later seen in some of the former Hellenic territories of Indian subcontinent. Spiral fluting as seen on right image’s pillar became nearly absent later on. (Dated 3rd or 2nd century CE under Western Mahākṣatrapas) [Source: The Buddhist Caves in Uparkot, Junagadh Fortress]

→ Śuṅgas adopted the Hellenic motif of Átlas holding holding Buddhist monuments with decorated Hellenic columns, replacing him with Yakṣas starting ~2nd century BCE. Below Baluster-holding yakṣa found in Madhya Pradesh, Śuṅga period (2nd–1st century BCE), now in Guimet Museum of Paris, France [Source: File:SungaAtalante.JPG - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Load-bearing arches have been in use in Indian subcontinent quite early, as seen in Takht-i-Bahi Buddhist monastery complex in Mardan, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. The site can be placed under Indo-Hellenic architecture. Load-bearing true arches continued to be used under Guptas, as seen in Bhitargaon temple. (Built 1st century CE under Indo-Parθavan kingdom, in use till 7th century CE) [Source: Takht I Bahi Stock Photos - Free & Royalty-Free Stock Photos from Dreamstime]

4th century CE – 6th century CE

• Vākāṭaka empire (c. 250 CE – c. 500 CE)

• Gupta Empire (c. 320 CE – c. 550 CE)

  • Ucchakalpas [Gupta feudatories in central India] (c. 5th century CE – c. 6th century CE)

  • Parivrājakas [Gupta feudatories in central India] (c. 5th century CE – c. 6th century CE)

• Second Aulikarā dynasty empire (4th century CE – c.550 CE)

Polities:

The origin of Gupta empire is uncertain. It expanded to include large territories of Indian subcontinent in 4th-5th century CE. The empire eventually died out due to many factors such as substantial loss of territory and imperial authority caused by their own erstwhile feudatories, as well as the invasions by the Huna peoples (Kidarites and Alchon Huns) from Central Asia. They maintained matrimonial relations with Vākāṭakas; Ucchakalpas seem to have switched allegiance from Vākāṭakas to Guptas sometime in 5th century CE.

Second Aulikarā dynasty rose to power after the decline of Guptas, and established a short lived empire during 6th century CE. The only monuments known under them are those of Yaśōdharman at Sondani, in Mandsaur district, Madhya Pradesh, India.

Temples:

Gupta empire was significant in development of Nāgara architecture, constructing many temples that would form the base for future temple architecture development. For unclear reasons, Gupta period represented a hiatus in Indian rock-cut architecture, with the first wave of construction finishing before the empire was established, and the second wave beginning in late 5th century CE, just as it was ending — a notable exception to this is Udayagiri caves of Madhya Pradesh, India excavated during late 4th-5th century CE under Guptas. Instead, the period has left almost the first surviving free-standing temple structures in India.

A few Vākāṭaka-built free-standing temples can also be seen, chiefly the remains of Pravareshvara Śiva temple built 5th century CE under king Pravarasēna II. Vākāṭakas also built the last caves of Ajanta caves cluster dated variously to a short period of 460- 480 CE to between 4th-7th century CE.

→ Suraj Gufa (Cave 1) of Udayagiri caves of Madhya Pradesh, India. This cave is located on the southernmost part of the hill and is the only excavation on this part of the hill. It faces east and is partly built and partly rock-cut. A ledge on the hill was converted into a chamber by constructing one of its lateral sides using dressed stone and covering the front with a maṇḍapa (portico in this case). Four front pillars support the mandapa. The intercolumniation gap between the two middle pillars is ~1m and the gap between the middle and the side pillars is ~0.3m, a typical Gupta period characteristic. The pillars are simple in design, their base is square carrying a shaft that first is octagonal and then turns to 16-sided near the top. The capital is carved with the vase-and-foliage motif. Historian Joanna Williams assigns this cave to the end of Candragupta II’s reign and considers the front pillars to provide an important step in the development of the capital. The vase-and-foliage (pūrṇa-ghaṭa) or overflowing vase motif is the first instance of such design in the Gupta repertoire. (Built late 4th-5th century CE) [Source: https://puratattva.in/udaigiri-the-sunrise-hill/]

→ Free-standing temples examples built under Guptas and Vākāṭakas:

1. Temple 17 at Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, India — a Gupta period tetrastyle prostyle Buddhist temple showing a simple design with a pillared hall leading to the sanctum. There’s no towering structure. (Built 5th century CE; Guptas) [Source: File:Sanchi temple 17.jpg - Wikipedia]

2. Kankali Devi Temple in Tigawa, Katni district, Uttar Pradesh, India — a Sanatanist temple lacking any tower, it originally had a tetrastyle prostyle portico but walls were built later on transforming it into distyle in antis (Built 5th century CE; Guptas) [Source: Tigawa - Wikipedia AND File:5th century Tigawa Hindu temple plan and door architecture, 1879 sketch.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

3. Pataini Temple in Unchehara village, Satna district, Madhya Pradesh, India — a Jaina temple with a now-fallen portico. The doorframe is ornate with gatekeepers on the bottom (2 sets) and 3 deity sculptures on top band; such doorframes became increasingly popular later on. (Built 5th century CE; Guptas) [Source: Pataini temple - Wikipedia]

4. Remains of Pravareshvara Śiva Temple at Mansar in Ramtek tehsil of Nagpur district, Maharashtra, India — may be considered as precursorial to Marāṭhī Temple Architecture. (Built 5th century CE; king Pravarasēna II of Vākāṭaka empire) [Source: File:MansarExcavation5.JPG - Wikimedia Commons]

5. Dashavtar Temple (main temple of the complex) in Deogarh, Lalitgarh district, Uttar Pradesh, India. It was made out of stone and bricks, and has a square floor-plan, and a mostly fallen tower. It is a single-cell shrine temple, although images of multiple deities exist in its precinct. It is made on a raised platform. The complex is one of the earliest examples of pañcāyatana arrangement format (arrangement of one main temple surrounded by 4 subsidiary ones) (Built early 6th century CE; Guptas)

1. View of the temple [Source: File:Deogarh01.jpg - Wikipedia]

2. Floorplan of the temple [Source: Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh - Wikipedia]

6. Parvati Temple of Nachna Temple cluster in Nachna-Kuthara, Panna district, Madhya Pradesh, India — the temple is a 2-storey structure with the upper storey inaccessible. Its doorframe also has the pair of gatekeeper sculptures but not the 3 deity sculptures at the top. (Built late 5th or early 6th century CE; Ucchakalpas) [Source: Nachna Hindu temples - Wikipedia; the plan image is cropped twice and the parts pasted sideways]

Free-standing temples started to have elaborate doorframes at least since this period, although such doorframes could be seen on cave temples, like in Vidisha’s Udayagiri Cave Cluster, as well. The bottom of many doorframes would have set of Dvārapālas (gatekeepers). The top portion can have a set of 3 deities, with the central deity identifying the deity kept in the sanctum.

→ Doorframe examples:

1. Plain T-type doorframe : entrance of Cave 3 of Udayagiri Caves [Source: Puratattva]

2. Rectangular doorframe with gatekeepers at bottom : entrance of Parvati Temple of Nachna Temple Cluster [Source: Puratattva]

3. T-type doorframe flanked by sculptures of Gaṅgā & Yamunā at upper portion : entrance to sanctum of Kankali Devi Temple [Source: Puratattva]

4. Doorframe with gatekeepers at bottom and three deities at top : entrance of Patai Temple [Source: File:Mohar Gupta Empire era Jain temple, Madhya Pradesh, Pataini Devi.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

The usage of true load bearing arches could be seen during Gupta rule, as is seen in Bhitargaon brick temple, although it did not become much popular in Indian temple architecture.

→ Bhitargaon brick temple in Bhitargoan, Kanpur district, Uttar Pradesh, India. It is a heavily restored brick temple. It features one of the oldest surviving sanctum towers among Nāgara style temples. The temple follows a rectangular plan and features 3-projection per side (triratha), with the tower being planar type (latina), albeit with decorations. (Built 5th century CE)

1. Entrance showing the arch [Source: File:Gupt kalin mandir bhitargaon (cropped).jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

2. Rear view with ASI notice [Source: File:Bhitargaon temple along with ASI inscription.jpg - Wikipedia]

Perforated stone windows in Nāgara style temples may also have been introduced in this period, as seen in Parvati temple of Nachna Temple Cluster in Madhya Pradesh, India.

→ Perforated stone window in Parvati temple of Nacha Temple Cluster [Source: File:Nachna Parvati-Tempel Jali 1999.JPG - Wikimedia Commons]

In 6th century CE or perhaps earlier, the entire faces of large temple towers or other surfaces could be taken up by grids of interlocking Candraśālā arch motifs, often called "Candraśālā mesh" or honeycomb. Early examples include the towers of Mahabodhi Temple of Bodh Gaya (Bihar, India), where the motifs cover most of the surface but do not actually interlock — this is of 6th century CE at the latest, but perhaps restoring a design of as early as the 2nd or 3rd century CE. {Cave 15 at Ellora, complete by 730 CE if not before, may be one of the earliest examples of the full style.}

Both Śukanāsa and Gavakṣa can be found in Nāgara style temples from this time around.

→ Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya, Bihar, India (Built 6th century CE; Guptas) [Source: File:Mahabodhitemple.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

→ The usage of fluted columns continued during this period as seen in the pillars of Yaśōdharman of Second Aulikarā dynasty, in Sondani Mandsaur, Madhya Pradesh, India (Dated 6th century CE) [Source: Puratattva]

6th century CE – 8th century CE

• Maitraka kingdom (493 CE – 776 CE) and Saindhava kingdom (735 CE – 920 CE)

• Śailōdbhava kingdom (6th century CE – 8th century CE)

• Shripura Pāṇḍuvaṁśī kingdom (7th century CE – 8th century CE)

• Cāvaṛā kingdom (690 CE – 942 CE)

Polities:

The collapse of Gupta empire led to many new kingdoms being formed, including the independence of many of their feudatories. These new kingdoms would continue to patronise temple constructions leading to the further development of Nāgara architecture. Most of the polities in northern, western and central India later came under suzerainty of Pratīhāra empire, which also paved the way for development of Māru-Gurjara architecture. In Kaḷiṅga region, many Buddhist monasteries and free standing Sanatanist temples were constructed during this period; the free standing Sanatanist temples were were quite similar to Nāgara architecture and the difference is more of a spectrum rather than distinctiveness at this stage.

The invasions of Alchon Hūṇās had caused a decline in Gandharan art. Gandharan art later temporarily revived under Kabul Śāhī and Zabul Śāhī, after which it declined forever following the invasions of Sāmāniyān, Safaryān, Ġaznaviyān and Šansabānīs. Their invasions and subsequent rule caused a sharp decline in temple building activities in South Asia (particularly northern, western and central India). Alchon Hūṇās (370 CE – 670 CE) introduced Indo-Sāsānian coinage in Indian subcontinent — this coinage would be used in north-western India and Gangetic Plains from 6th century CE to 12th century CE. This coinage was current among the various polities of western India succeeding the collapse of Gupta Empire, such as Rāṣṭrakūṭas, Caulukyas and Pālas from c. 530 CE to 1202 CE; in case of Caulukyas, these are also often called "Gadhaiya Paise". Around the beginning of 9th century CE, Indo-Sāsānian coinage was adopted in Gangetic region: Vigrahapāla drammas of a certain ruler named Vigrahapāla, and later Ādivarāha drammas of Pratihāra ruler Bhōja I (c. 836-886 CE) being major examples. This indicates that there may have been closer cultural interactions among these polities, and this might have influenced temple architecture development as well.

→ Screenshots from Indo-Sasanian coinage - Wikipedia

Maitrakas, Cāvaṛās and Saindhavas, though adopting mainly post-Gupta era Nāgara architecture, laid the groundwork for the development of Maru-Gurajara architecture. Post the collapse of Gupta empire, their feudatories Maitrakas of Vallabhi declared independence and continued with post-Gupta era Nagara architecture in their temples in Gujarat: Gop Sun Temple, Firangi Deval at Kalsar, Magderu temple in Dhrasanvel etc. Magderu temple constructed in 8th century CE is the earliest known pañca-ratha (5-facet) temple in the region. The causes of their decline are not well known. Saindhavas ruled in alliance with Maitrakas during their early years, and continued to rule parts of Gujarat post Maitraka decline. Saindhavas were probably originated from Sindh (now in Pakistan) who moved southward and established themselves in Apara-Surashtra (western Saurashtra (in Gujarat, India). The cause of Saindhava decline is not known precisely. Their capital Bhutambilika (present-day Ghumli) also became capital of the later Jēṭhvā dynasty.

Cāvaṛās established themselves in Panchasar, and later in Anahilvad. Their origin in disputed. Their construction activities also involved post-Gupta era Nagara architecture. Mērutuṅga's Prabandhacintāmaṇi mentions various temples constructed by the dynasty. The dynasty’s last ruler Sāmantasinha Cāvaṛā did not have any children so he adopted his nephew Mūlarāja who overthrew him c. 942 CE and established Caulukya dynasty.

Temples:

→ Shiva Temple in Mahua village, Shivpuri district of Madhya Pradesh, central India. It assigned variously to 650-675 CE CE by historian Krishna Deva and early 8th century CE by historian RD Trivedi; Krishna Deva states it to be the earliest example of a fully developed Latina shikhara temple in central India. [Source: Mahua - Puratattva]

After the decline of Guptas, few, if any, temples could be seen with load-bearing true arches. The usage of load-bearing arches declined, although Candraśālā arch decorative motif continued to be used commonly and developed multiple forms during and after this period.

Multiple developments in Candraśālā motif could be seen during this period:

• In 7th century CE, Śukanāsa developed — this is a very large developed Candraśālā motif fixed on the outside of the temple tower over its entrance, normally standing vertical, although the tower may slope inward. Śukanāsa can house figurines inside the arch, and decorated at the top as well.

• Candraśālā mesh motif developed at least by 8th century CE, with the earliest known example being the ~730 CE Cave 15 of Ellora Caves.

• The shape of Candraśālā arch over entrances also evolved to different shapes over time.

→ Cave 10 of Ellora Caves (Built 650 CE). The main window is smaller, and now bears no relation to the roof inside (which still has the traditional ribs). It has only two of the traditional projections imitating purlin beam-ends, and a wide decorative frame that spreads over several times the width of the actual window opening. Two doors to the sides have pediments with "split and superimposed" blind gavakshas, also with wide frames. This was to the style of Candraśālā that had already been widely adopted for the decoration of Sanatanist and Jaina temples [Source: File:1 façade du Chaitya Griha Vishvakarma Cave 10 Ellora India.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Śukanāsa motif : elaborate Śukanāsa seen over Baitala Deula in Bhubaneswar, Odisha, eastern India (Built 8th century CE under Bhauma-Karas; Kaḷiṅga architecture) [Source: edited image from Kalinga Temple Architecture - Puratattva]

→ Candraśālā mesh motif : Cave 15 (Built ~730 CE) of Ellora Caves, Aurangabad district, Maharashtra, India — among the earliest examples of Candraśālā mesh motif are seen with this cave. [Source: File:ELLORA CAVE NO.15 (1).jpg]

→ Development of Candraśālā arch till 9th century CE [Source: File:IA Development of the Chaitya arch.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

Nāgara architecture and Māru-Gurjara architecture

Maitrakas and Saindhavas probably ruled in alliance when their time periods overlap. They ruled parts of Gujarat. Maitraka dynasty’s architecture is in continuum with that of Gupta empire. The copper plate inscriptions of Maitrakas mentions religious edifices, both Sanatanist and Buddhist. Saindhavas followed Maitrakas in their temple architecture. It is not clearly known why their rules ended; Jēṭhvās (620–1948 CE) replaced Saindhavas, and their architectural style was closer to and likely part of development phase of Māru-Gurjara architecture.

→ Gop Sun Temple in Zinavari village in Jamjodhpur Taluka of Jamnagar district, Gujarat, India - features distinct Candraśālā arches over its roof. (Built 6th century CE; Maitrakas) [Sources: File:Gop Gupta-Tempel 1999.JPG - Wikimedia Commons, File:Gop Sun temple Zinavari Gujarat roof north.jpg - Wikimedia Commons AND https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=64679102]

→ Firangi Deval in in Kalsar village near Mahuva, Bhavnagar district, Gujarat, India — a series of Candraśālā arches can be seen above the entrance. (Built 7th century CE; Maitrakas) [Source: File:Firangi Deval, Bhavnagar district, Gujarat, India.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Magderu Temple near Dhrasanvel village in Okhamandal Taluka of Devbhoomi Dwarka district, Gujarat, India — It is an asymmetric Saptāyatana (7-temple complex) as seen in second image, and is possibly a modification of a Pañcāyatana (5-temple complex) or Aṣṭāyatana (8-temple complex). (Built 8th century CE; Maitrakas) [Source: Magderu - Wikipedia]

→ Pindara Group of Temples in Kalyanpur Taluka of Devbhoomi Dwarka district, Gujarat, India belong to Maitraka-Saindhava period (7th-10th century CE). These temple show some of the earliest features adopted into Māru-Gurjara architecture. Temples No. 2 and 3 are both of Phamsaṇa type, of penthouse variety. These temples show the early Mahā-Gurjara architectural influence. These temples are west facing. Temple 4 shows tiers with upward pointing “spikes”, a feature seen commonly in later temples.

1. Temple 4 with Phamsaṇa type tower having tiers with upward pointing “spikes” [Source: File:SHIVA TEMPLE - PINDARA.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

2. Temple 5 on right with much lower quantity and less obvious “spikes” [Source: File:Durvasa Rishi's Ashram, Complex area.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

Kaḷiṅga architecture (Tri-Kaḷiṅga region)

In Tri-Kaḷiṅga region, temple construction activities were undertaken by Śailōdbhavas and Shripura Pāṇḍuvaṁśīs. Kaḷiṅga Gaṅgas originated in early 6th century CE itself but their temples are mainly found during 8th century CE and later {hence, covered in later section}. Free-standing temples classifiable under Kaḷiṅga architecture began to appear in 6th century CE and proliferated since 8th century CE.

→ Śailōdbhava rule Rēkhā deuḷa type temples:

1. Shatrughnesvara Temple Group in Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India (6th century CE) — consisting of free-standing bimānas [Source: File:Bharateswara Temple, Bhubaneswar 07.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

2. Parsurameswara Temple in Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India (7th century CE) — consisting of bimāna and hall (jagamōhana). It has a 3-facet Rēkha deuḷa type bimāna. A Sahasra-liṅgaṁ stands in its premises. [Source: File:Parasurameswar temple with linga.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Shripura Pāṇḍuvaṁśī rule Rēkhā deuḷa type temples:

1. Lakshmana Temple of Sirpur Monument Group, Chhattisgarh, India (7th century CE) [Source: File:7th century Lakshmana Hindu temple, Sirpur Chhattisgarh India 1.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

2. Andal Deula, Kharod, Chhattisgarh, India (7th or 8th century CE) [Source: Andal Deul Temple, Kharod, Chattisgarh]

8th century CE – 10th century CE

• Karkōṭa empire (625 CE – 855 CE) and Utpala kingdom (855 CE – 1003 CE)

• Kūrmāñcala Katyūrī kingdom (700 CE – 1065 CE) and later Katyūrī polities (1065 CE – 1200 CE)

• Avanti/Kanyakubja Pratihāra empire (Gurjara-Pratihāras) (c. 730 CE – 1036 CE)

• Manyakheta Rāṣṭrakūṭa empire (753 CE – 982 CE)

  • → Lāṭa Rāṣṭrakūṭas [feudatory branch in southern Gujarat (Lāṭa region)]

• Tōṣala (Bhauma-Kara) kingdom (8th century CE – 10th century CE)

  • Gaṅga kingdom (Early Phase) (505 CE – 10th century CE) [Bhauma-Kara feudatories]

  • Khijjinga Bhañja kingdom (8th century CE – 10th century CE) [Bhauma-Kara feudatories]

  • Khinjali Bhañja kingdom (8th century CE – 10th century CE) [Bhauma-Kara feudatories]

• Oḍḍiyāna Śāhī kingdom (822 CE – 1026 CE)

• Sōmavaṃśī kingdom (Early Phase) (9th century CE – 10th century CE)

Polities:

Karkōṭas and later Utpalas ruled parts of northern India, with their power centred in Kashmir. Some of their temples can be classified under Nāgara architecture, and among them Krimchi Temples feature fluted columns, indicating a continued Hellenic influence over northern India and Gandhāra region. Oḍḍiyāna Śāhīs (a.k.a. Hindu Śāhīs) ruled over Kabul Valley, Gandhara and western Punjab, succeeding Kabul Śāhīs and were contemporaries of Karkōṭas and Utpalas for some time. Temples of both Karkōṭas and Oḍḍiyāna Śāhīs feature multi-foil arches, of which the temples of Oḍḍiyāna Śāhīs with these features being classifiable under Nāgara architecture while the primary example of Karkōṭas is Martand Surya Temple classifiable under Kashmiri architecture.

Katyūrī kings ruled parts of Uttarakhand (northern India) and Sudurpashchim province (western Nepal). Katyūrīs constructed numerous temples during their reign, in particular: Katarmal Sun Temple Complex, Jageshwar Temple Cluster and Baijnath Temple Complex in Uttarakhand. Most Katyūrī era temples are relatively simple structures with minimal decorations. Their first kingdom was Kūrmāñcala (land of Kūrma-Viṣṇu (turtle incarnation of Viṣṇu)) (700 CE – 1065 CE). After the fragmentation of Kūrmāñcala kingdom, Katyūrī rule continued with several smaller kingdoms until 1200 CE.

For most of central, western and northern India, the period of 8th-10th century CE was marked by the rule of Avanti Pratihāras, Manyakheta Rāṣṭrakūṭas and Pālas (750 CE – 1161 CE) who were in constant conflict along with each other. Most of the pre-existing kingdoms of western, northern and central Indian subcontinent ended up becoming feudatories of either of them. The decline of Avanti Pratihāras and Manyakheta Rāṣṭrakūṭas in 10th century CE saw the emergence of many of their feudatories as independent kingdoms.

The origin of Avanti/Kanyakubja Pratihārasis not well known. They rose to power in 8th century CE, and remained the most significant polity in Rajasthan, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh up until 10th century CE. Their power declined in 10th century CE with many feudatories becoming independent, finally ending in 11th century CE.

Rāṣṭrakūṭas initially served as feudatories of Vatapi Cālukyas, and overthrew them to become independent. Lāṭa Rāṣṭrakūṭa branch ruled as their feudatories in southern Gujarat (Lāṭa region). Rāṣṭrakūṭa decline came at hands of Paramāras and Kalyani Cālukyas; Kalyani Cālukyas established Lāṭa Cālukyas as their feudatories in southern Gujarat (Lāṭa region).

By the last quarter of 8th century CE, Bhauma-Karas had gained control of the former Śailōdbhava territory, establishing Tōṣala kingdom in eastern and northern Odisha. Their feudatories included Gaṅgas of Shvetaka, Shulkis of Kodalaka, Tungas of Yamagartta, Nandodbhavas of Jayapura, and Bhanjas (of Khijjingakotta, Khinjali, and Vajulvaka). The kingdom was supplanted by Bhañjas and Sōmavaṃśīs in 10th century CE.

Kaḷiṅga Gaṅgas had originated in 6th century CE itself, but most of the examples of temples constructed under their reign date to 8th century CE later, and they served as Bhauma-Kara feudatories during this period. Kalinganagara (present-day Mukhalingam) and Dantapuram (both in Andhra Pradesh, India) and served as their capital. Their rule began when Indravarma I defeated the Vinukoṇḍa ruler Indrabhattaraka and established his rule over the region with Kalinganagara as his capital and Dantapuram as a secondary capital. During the rule of Anantavarman Vajrahasta V in mid-11th century CE Kaḷiṅga Gaṅgas started emerging as a major military power challenging the authority of Sōmavaṃśīs.

Sōmavaṃśīs expanded their control over Tri-Kaḷiṅga region during 9th century CE, occupying territories of Bhauma-Kara rulers during this period. Sōmavaṁśīs likely originated in Kośaḷa region, as indicated by several Sōmavaṁśī inscriptions record grants to people from Kośaḷa, grants of villages located in Kośaḷa, and appointment of Kośaḷa-specific officers. The reign of Yayāti I marks beginning of Sōmavaṁśī style of temple architecture, which features form, ornamentation and iconography not previously seen in Tri-Kaḷiṅga region. But after Yayāti I’s reign, Sōmavaṁśīs went into decline due to invasions from Paramāras, Tripuri Kalacuris and Tamiḻ Cōḻas.

Bhañjas were initially independent rulers, later becoming feudatories of Kaḷiṅga Gaṅgas, Bhauma-Karas and Sōmavaṃśīs.

Temples:

A few rock-cut temples classifiable under Nāgara/Māru-Gurjara architecture can be seen during this period, the primary example being Masrur rock-cut temples in Himachal Pradesh northern India.

→ Rock-cut Nāgara/Māru-Gurjara temples examples:

1. Masrur rock-cut temples in Kangra Valley, Himachal Pradesh, northern India. (Dated to early 8th century CE; Nāgara architecture) [Source: Masrur Temples - Wikipedia]

2. Dharmarajeshwara Temple Complex in Chandwasa Village, Garoth Tehsil, Mandsaur, Madhya Pradesh, India (Built 8th-9th century CE; Nāgara or Māru-Gurjara architecture; either Rāṣṭrakūṭas or Gurjara-Pratihāras) [Source: Puratattva]

Fluted columns can be seen in Krimchi Temples and Kala Dera temples of Kashmir, built probably under either Kārkōṭa empire or Utpala kingdom, indicating the continued Hellenic (& possibly Roman) influence over this region. Fluted columns seem to have declined in popularity later on, being replaced by more decorated columns in some structures, as indicated by the columns in Vishnu Temple of Bateshwar Temple Cluster in central India built during 8th-11th century CE under Pratiharas.

→ Fluted columns can be seen in Krimchi Temples and Kala Dera temples of Kashmir, indicating the continued Hellenic (& possibly Roman) influence over this region. More decorated columns can be seen later on:

1. Fluted columns at Krimchi Temples (Built 8th-9th century CE placing them under either Kārkōṭa empire (625 CE – 855 CE) or Utpala kingdom (855 CE – 1003 CE)) {the linked article calls them Roman style columns} [Source: The Wanderer]

2. Fluted columns at Kala Dera Temples {the linked article calls them Roman style columns} [Source: The Wanderer]

3. Fluted columns seem to have declined in popularity later on and being replaced by more decorated columns in some structures, as indicated by the columns in Vishnu Temple of Bateshwar Temple Cluster in Padavali, Morena district, Madhya Pradesh, central India (Built 8th-11th century CE; Pratiharas) [Source: File:Vishnu Temple at Bateshwar (16129557249).jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

Bhāravāhakas (weight-carriers) could seen in capitals of temple pillars and as decorative motifs around this period belonging to all three of the architecture styles of Greater Nāgara Architecture Family (Nāgara, Kaḷiṅga and Māru-Gurjara) — Bhāravāhakas on capitals “protrude” from the columns and are more akin to sculptures than simple 2D motifs. These were possibly inspired by Śuṅga period weight-bearer Yakṣa motifs, themselves inspired by Hellenic Atlantean motifs.

→ Bhāravāhakas examples:

1. Bhāravāhakas on the columns comprising the Āṭh-Khambā (8 pillars) monument which is the remains of a temple in Gyaraspur village, Vishi district, Madhya Pradesh, India. (Built 9th century CE - 10th century CE; Pratihāras) [Source: Puratattva]

2. Images of Nohleshwar Temple in Nohta, Damoh District, Madhya Pradesh, India (Built sometime between late 10th century CE - 12th century CE; Tripuri Kalacuris) [Source: Puratattva; the rightmost image is zoomed-out and cropped]

Multi-foil arches and Makara-Tōraṇa arches, which can have overlap amongst them seem to have gained popularity during this period.

Makara-Tōraṇa arches seem to have gained popularity during this period primarily under Pratihāras and Paramāras.

→ Makara-Tōraṇa arches examples (L2R):

1. The surviving 5 (of the original 10) Makara-Tōraṇa arches of Nau-Torana Temple in Khor village, Neemuch district, Madhya Pradesh, India (Built 11th century CE; Paramāras) [Source: Puratattva]

2. Makara-Tōraṇa arch of Āṭh-Khambā (8 pillars) monument which is the remains of a temple in Gyaraspur village, Vishi district, Madhya Pradesh, India. (Built 9th century CE - 10th century CE; Pratihāras) [Source: Puratattva]

3. Double Makara-Tōraṇa arch of Hindola Toran in Gyaraspur village, Vishi district, Madhya Pradesh, India. (Built probably 9th century CE; Pratihāras) [Source: Puratattva]

Temples of both Karkōṭas and Oḍḍiyāna Śāhīs feature Multi-foil arches, of which the temples of Oḍḍiyāna Śāhīs with these features being classifiable under Nāgara architecture while the primary example of Karkōṭas is Martand Surya Temple classifiable under Kashir (Kashmiri) architecture.

→ Multi-foil arches from temples of Karkōṭas and Oḍḍiyāna Śāhīs [Source: Screenshot from Multifoil arch - Wikipedia]

Ornate doorframes with sculptures and decorated bands became more common since this period — the sculptures of deities are commonly present at 5 points of the doorframes : doorkeepers at bottom terminals (2), subsidiary deities at upper corners (2) and the main deity at centre-top (1). However, such doorframes are not universal, and mostly limited to central India. Multiple examples can be found from the temples commissioned under Pratihāras and Kalacuris; the older examples are less common and mainly from Gupta empire sponsored temples only.

→ Ornate doorframes with sculptures and decorated bands became more common since this period — the sculptures of deities are commonly present at 5 points of the doorframes : doorkeepers at bottom terminals (2), subsidiary deities at upper corners (2) and the main deity at centre-top (1). However, such doorframes are not universal, and mostly limited to central India. Multiple examples can be found from the temples commissioned under Pratihāras and Kalacuris; the older examples are less common and mainly from Gupta empire sponsored temples only.

1. Doorframe of the ruined Ekla Temple at Kadwaha, Ashoknagar district, Madhya Pradesh, India (Dated 9th century CE under Pratihāras) [Source: Puratattva]

2. Ornately decorated doorframe (highlighted in gold) of central temple of Jaria Ka Math Complex, Barua Sagar village, Jhansi district, Uttar Pradesh, India. The multiple Candraśālā motifs over it are highlighted in green. (Dated to 9th or 10th century CE under Pratihāras) [Source: Puratattva]

3. Doorframe of Shiva Temple in Janjgir, Janjgir-Champa district, Chhattisgarh, India — the bottom portion has has 3 gatekeepers at each terminal, while the deity sculptures are present at innermost band. (Dated to 12th century CE under Ratnapur Kalacuri king Jajalladēva I) [Source: http://puratattva.in/janjgir-incomplete-work-of-vishvakarma/]

4. Doorframe of Sita Temple in Deorbeeja village, Durg district, Chhattisgarh, India (Dated early 13th century CE under Ratnapur Kalacuris) [Source: Puratattva]

5. Ornate doorframe of Gandai Deur Temple in Gandai village, Rajanandgaon district, Chhattisgarh, India (Dated 13th-14th century CE under Ratnapur Kalacuris) [Source: Puratattva]

Sarvatōbhadra-type Nāgara style temples also possibly began to appear during this period — such temples have entrances on all of their faces.

→ Basheshar Mahadev Temple in in Kullu, Himachal Pradesh, India — single Latina bimāna with entrances on all 4 sides i.e. Sarvatōbhadra-type temple (Built estimated 8th-9th century CE) [Source: Basheshar Mahadev Temple Kullu – Largest Stone Temple]

Twin temples under Kaḷiṅga architecture can be seen since 9th century CE — such temples are constructed as similar sized and styled pairs, often sharing the same platform (jagati).

→ Nilamadhab temple and Sidheswar temple, built on a single shared platform, in Gandharadi village, Boudh district, Odisha, India — Nilamadhab temple has a Cakra on its spire while Sidheswar temple has a liṅgaṁ on its spire (Built 9th century CE; Khinjali Bhañja rulers) [Source: http://bhubaneswarstories.com/2020/06/temple-tales-twin-temples-at-gandharadi.html]

Nāga-Nāgī pillars i.e. pillars spiral images of a male-female Nāga pair, especially at the pillars of entrance porches, appear in Kaḷiṅga architecture temples since this period. Such pillars can also be found as engaged pillars or a false pillars in some temples.

→ Nāga-Nāgī pillars in Kaḷiṅga architecture temples examples:

1. Nīlamādhava temple and Siddhēśvara temple, built on a single shared platform, in Jagati, Boudh district, Odisha, India — Nāga-Nāgī pillars at entrance porches and pillars framing the perforated stone wall. (Built 9th century CE under Bhañja rulers) [Source: http://bhubaneswarstories.com/2020/06/temple-tales-twin-temples-at-gandharadi.html]

2. Varahi Deul in Chaurasi, Puri, Odisha, India (Built 9th or early 10th century CE; Sōmavaṃśīs) [Source: Puratattva]

3. Aedicule on a wall of Gauri Temple in Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India — the Nāga-Nāgī scultptures feature a “descending spiral” with the Nāgas’ upper body below their tail. (Built estimated 10th or 11th century CE; Sōmavaṃśīs) [Source: Puratattva]

The earliest Khākharā deuḷa type temples appeared in this period — these include the free-standing temples constructed under Bhauma-Karas and Sōmavaṃśīs, as well as Mukhalingam Madhukeshwar Temple Complex’s shrines contiguous with the enclosure walls.

→ Kaḷiṅga architecture Khākharā deuḷa type temples examples:

1. Durga Temple in Baideshwar village (near Kalapathara chowk), Cuttack district, Odisha, India (Built 8th century CE; Bhauma-Kara) [Source: File:Baideswar Durga Temple.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

2. Baitala Deul in Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India having 3 identical spires on the top (Built 8th century CE; Bhauma-Kara) [Source: File:Baitala Temple, Bhubaneswr. Odisha.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

3. Varahi Deul in Chaurasi, Puri, Odisha, India (Built 9th or 10th century CE; possibly Sōmavaṃśī) [Source: File:Varahi Devi Temple , Chaurasi .jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

Nāgara architecture and Māru-Gurjara architecture

Karkōṭa dynasty and Utpala dynasty ruled parts of northern India, with their power centred in Kashmir. Some of their temples can be classified under Nāgara architecture although Martand Surya Temple at least may be classified under Kashmir region’s own architecture style.

→ Fluted columns at Krimchi Temples in Krimchi Fort, Jammu division, Jammu & Kashmir, India (Built 8th-9th century CE placing them under either Karkōṭa empire (625 CE – 855 CE) or Utpala kingdom (855 CE – 1003 CE)) {the linked article call them Roman style columns but Roman influence is unlikely to be present over Indian subcontinent} [Source: The Wanderer]

→ Krimchi Temple cluster as seen from Krimchi fort [Source: File:Krimchi Temples.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

Gurjara-Pratihāras were significant towards development of Māru-Gurjara architecture, however, some of their temples can be classified under Nāgara architecture. Their core area of activity was Gujarat, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. The origin of Gurjara-Pratihāras is not well known. They rose to power in 8th century CE, and remained the most significant polity in Rajasthan, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh up until 10th century CE. Their power declined in 10th century CE with many feudatories becoming independent, and their rule finally ended in 11th century CE.

Temple building activities under Rāṣṭrakūṭas seem more limited in outside their core territories, with Roda Temple Group and Dhramarajeshwar rock-cut temple complex being one of the few monuments possibly ascribable to them. Their temple construction activities were more concentrated in Maharashtra and Karnataka, with the temples mainly following Rāṣṭrakūṭa architecture sub-style.

→ Fluted columns examples :

1. Sun Temple in Madhkhera village, Tikamgarh district, Madhya Pradesh, India — the distyle prostyle entrance porch has fluted columns (Built 9th century CE) [Source: Puratattva]

→ However fluted columns do seem to have declined in popularity later on and being replaced by more decorated columns in some structures, as indicated by the columns in Vishnu Temple of Bateshwar Temple Cluster in Padavali, Morena district, Madhya Pradesh, India (Built 8th-11th century CE; Pratiharas) [Source: File:Vishnu Temple at Bateshwar (16129557249).jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Highly decorated doorframes with sculptures and decorated bands can be commonly seen under Pratihāras during this period — the sculptures of deities are commonly present at 5 points of the doorframes : doorkeepers at bottom terminals (2), subsidiary deities at upper corners (2) and the main deity at centre-top (1). However, such doorframes are not universal, and mostly limited to central India. Multiple examples can be found from the temples commissioned under Pratihāras and later under Kalacuris {The older examples are less common and mainly from Gupta empire funded temples only}.

1. Doorframe of the ruined Ekla Temple at Kadwaha, Ashoknagar district, Madhya Pradesh, central India (Dated 9th century CE; Pratihāras) [Source: Puratattva]

2. Ornately decorated doorframe (highlighted in gold) of central temple of Jaria Ka Math Complex, Barua Sagar village, Jhansi district, Uttar Pradesh, northern India. The multiple Candraśālā motifs over it are highlighted in green.(Dated to 9th or 10th century CE; Pratihāras) [Source: Puratattva]

→ Roda Group of Temples in Raisingpura (Roda) village, Sabarkantha district, Gujarat, India are seven Sanatanist temples built during period. They also include a reservoir and a stepwell. These temples are classified under the Anarta School of Mahā-Gurjara tradition of temple construction. It is the largest group of such styled temples. (Built 8th-9th century CE under Gurjara-Pratihāras or Rāṣṭrakūṭas)[Source: Roda Group of Temples - Wikipedia]

1. Temples 1 & 2

2. Temples 3 & 5, and stepwell

→ A rare example of Aṣṭāyatana arrangement : Dharmarajeshwara Temple Complex in Chandwasa Village, Garoth Tehsil, Mandsaur, Madhya Pradesh, India — it is a rock-cut temple complex with the main temple surrounded by 7 smaller temples (Built 8th-9th century CE; Gurjara-Pratihāras or Rāṣṭrakūṭas ) {rotated image}

1. Views of the complex [Source: Puratattva]

2. Floorplan of the complex [Source: File:7th century CE Dharmrajeshwar Vishnu temples complex, Chandwasa Madhya Pradesh.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Bateshwar Temple Cluster in Morena district, Madhya Pradesh, central India (Built 8th-11th century CE; Pratiharas):

1. Some of the smaller temples don’t have towers, and many lack any entrance porch. [Source: Puratattva]

2. Floorplans of some of the temples : Made by Alexander Cunningham [Source: File:8th to 10th century Batesvar Hindu temples plan Madhya Pradesh India.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Sun Temple of Madkhera Village, Tikamgarh District, Madhya Pradesh, India — a distyle prostyle temple with fluted outer columns, and featuring a large Śukanāsa. (Built 9th century CE; Pratiharas) [Source: Sun Temple, Madkhera Village, Tikamgarh District, Madhya Pradesh]

→ Ghateshwar Mahadev Temple of Baroli Temple Cluster in Chittorgarh district, Rajasthan, north-western India (Built 10th century CE; Pratihāras)

1. The temple features a tetrastyle prostyle entrance hall [Source: File:Baroli temple.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

2. The temple with its staggered-square plan associated hall [Source: Baroli Temples Complex Rawatbhata, Timings, History, Entry Fee]

3. Plan of the temple and its associated hall [Source: File:1910 sketch of plan, early 10th century Ghateshwara Mahadeva temple, Baroli, southeastern Rajasthan.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

Katyūrī kings ruled parts of Uttarakhand (in northern India) and Sudurpashchim province (western Nepal). Katyūrīs constructed numerous temples during their reign, in particular: Katarmal Sun Temple Complex , Jageshwar Temple Cluster and Baijnath Temple Complex in Uttarakhand. Most Katyūrī era temples are relatively simple structures with minimal decorations.

Their first kingdom was Kūrmāñcala (land of Kūrma-Viṣṇu (turtle incarnation of Viṣṇu)) (700 CE – 1065 CE). After the fragmentation of Kūrmāñcala kingdom, Katyūrī rule continued with several smaller kingdoms until 1200 CE.

→ Katarmal Sun Temple Complex in Katarmal village, Kumaon Division, in Almora District, Uttarakhand, northern India. (Built 9th century CE under Kaṭāramalla Katyūrī):

1. Main Temple and surrounding subsidiary temples. The main temple has a wide Śukanāsa which is common across most of India, but the Śukanāsa has aedicules, a rarity in Nāgara architecture temples. The attached hall is a tetrastyle prostyle hall with gable roof. The subsidiary temples mostly have distyle prostyle entrance porch. [Source: File:Katarmal.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

2. The subsidiary temples mostly follow a common plan — a rectangular paraboloid Rēkhā prasāda with āmalaka on top, having a undecorated Śukanāsa and a simple distyle prostyle entrance porch. [Source: File:Sun Temple, Katarmal.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Jageshwar Temple Group in Aartola, Jageshwar valley, Almora district, Uttarakhand, India (Built 7th-14th century CE)

1. The sloping roofs are a retrospective addition, probably to protect against snow buildup. Most temples are either Rēkhā prāsāda or Phamsaṇa prāsāda, and are quite simple in structure. [Source: File:Image ank.JPG - Wikimedia Commons]

2. A barrel-vaulted (Vallabhī prāsāda) subsidiary temple dedicated to a female deity — a rare example of such type of Nāgara style temple [Source: File:One of the smaller shrines of Jageshwar temple complex (6133787720).jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

3. An otherwise simple Phamsaṇa prāsāda temple with a highly elaborate Śukanāsa [Source: File:Vriddh Jageshwar.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

Oḍḍiyāna Śāhīs (a.k.a. Hindu Śāhīs) ruled over Kabul Valley, Gandhara and western Punjab, succeeding Kabul Śāhīs. New temples were built inside fortresses while existing ones were extensively refurbished or repurposed. Gandhāra-Nāgara style of architecture developed distinct formulations under them.

→ One of the temples of Kafir Kot temple cluster in Dera Ismail Khan District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan is credited to Oḍḍiyāna Śāhīs (Built mid-9th century CE) [Source: File:KafirKot Temple (D) Ruins.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Amb Temples in Amb Sharef village, Khushab District, Punjab, Pakistan (Built 9-10th century CE) [Source: Amb Temples - Wikipedia]

1. The two temples of the group

2. A façade multi-foil arch over the entrance of a temple

Kaḷiṅga architecture (Tri-Kaḷiṅga region)

Bhubaneswara had started to gain religious importance at least since this period, by the name Ekāmra-kṣētra (place of lone mango tree). The earliest epigraphical reference of Ekāmra comes from an inscription dated in 280th year of Gupta era, corresponding to 600 CE — the inscription belongs to Vigraha dynasty and mentions Ekāmbaka which can be identified with Ekāmra. A Bhauma-Kara period 9th-10th century CE inscription mentions that a certain ruler named Śāntikara visited Ekāmra holy site paying homage of Bindusarōvara (Bindu lake) with land donations. Many later inscriptions in Bhubaneswar retains the name of the region as Ekamra whose presiding deity was Kr̥ttivasa. On its presiding deity, the place was also known as Kr̥ttivasa-Kaṭaka (fort of Kr̥ttivasa). Kapila Samhitā, dating to 11th century CE, also mentions Ekāmra-kṣētra.

→ The earliest free-standing Khākharā deuḷa type temples appeared in this period:

1. Durga Temple in Baideshwar village (near Kalapathara chowk), Cuttack district, Odisha, India (Built 8th century CE; Bhauma-Karas) [Source: File:Baideswar Durga Temple.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

2. Baitala Deul in Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India having 3 identical spires on the top (Built 8th century CE; Bhauma-Karas) [Source: File:Baitala Temple, Bhubaneswr. Odisha.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

3. Varahi Deul in Chaurasi, Puri, Odisha, India (Built 9th or 10th century CE; possibly Sōmavaṃśī) [Source: File:Varahi Devi Temple , Chaurasi .jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

Bhauma-Karas (Tōṣala kingdom) commissioned temples were more elaborate in decorations and scale compared to earlier polities, especially Baitala Deul which is one of the earliest examples of Bimāna + Jagamōhana constructed simultaneously rather than the jagamōhana being a later addition. Bhauma Karas also commissioned some of the earliest Khākharā deuḷa type temples, including the small Durga Temple in Cuttack and the relatively large Baitala Deul in Bhubaneswar, both in Odisha, India.

→ Bhauma-Kara commissioned Rēkhā deuḷa type temples examples without Jagamōhana -

L2R: An old temple in Yamesvara Temple Complex, Gauri-Shankar-Ganesh Temple, New Bhavani-Shankara Temple and Talesvara Temple (all built sometime in late 7th century CE or early 8th century CE) [Source: Puratattva]

→ Bhauma-Kara commissioned Rēkhā deuḷa type temples examples with Jagamōhana attached (contemporary or later construction notwithstanding):

1. Markandesvara Temple (8th century CE or possibly earlier) [Source: Indian History and Architecture]

2. Sisiresvara Temple, in Baitala Deula Complex, Bhubanesvara, Odisha, India — based on Markandesvara temple [Source: Sisireswara Temple - The Beginning of Sakta Tradition]

3. Mohini Temple (8th century CE) [Source: Early Bhauma-Kara Period Temples]

4. Uttaresvara Temple in Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India — consisting of bimāna and a sloping-roofed hall (jagamōhana). It has a 3-facet Rēkha deuḷa type bimāna. (8th century CE) [Source: Early Bhauma-Kara Period Temples]

→ Bhauma-Kara commissioned Khākharā deuḷa type temples:

1. Durga Temple in Baideshwar village (near Kalapathara chowk), Cuttack district, Odisha, India (Built 8th century CE; Bhauma-Kara) [Source: File:Baideswar Durga Temple.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

2. Baitala Deul in Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India having 3 identical spires on the top (Built 8th century CE; Bhauma-Kara) [Source: File:Baitala Temple, Bhubaneswr. Odisha.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

Up until 11th century CE, Kaḷiṅga Gaṅgas ruled as feudatories of Bhauma-Karas, with their capitals at Kalinganagara and Dantapuram.

→ Srimukhalingam (in Mukhalingam, Jalumuru mandal of Srikakulam district, Andhra Pradesh, India) was the capital of Kaḷiṅga Gaṅgas during this period:

1. Madhukesvara Temple Complex in Mukhalingam — both Rēkhā deuḷa type and Khākharā deuḷa type shrines contiguous with the enclosure walls can be seen (Built 8th century CE) [Source: Odisha Style: Madhukeshwar Temple at Mukhalingam]

2. Bhimeshwar Temple in Mukhalingam (Built 8th century CE) [Source: Odisha Style: Bhimeshwar & Someshwar Temples at Mukhalingam]

3. Someshwar Temple in Mukhalingam (Built 10th century CE) [Source: Odisha Style: Bhimeshwar & Someshwar Temples at Mukhalingam]

Khijjinga Bhañjas and Khinjali Bhañjas also served as Bhauma-Kara feudatories till 10th century CE.

→ Nilamadhab temple and Sidheswar temple, built on a single shared platform, in Gandharadi village, Boudh district, Odisha, India — Nilamadhab temple has a Cakra on its spire while Sidheswar temple has a liṅgaṁ on its spire. (Built 9th century CE, probably under Khinjali Bhañja rulers) [Source: Chari Sambhu Temple - Gandharadi Temple - Junapanka - Jagati - Boudh District - Odisha]

→ Kichakeshwari Temple in Khiching, Mayurbhanj district, Odisha, India (Built 10th century CE under Khijjinga Bhañjas) [Source: File:Maa Kichakeswari temple, Khiching, Mayurbhanj, Odisha.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

Sōmavaṃśīs expanded their control over Tri-Kaḷiṅga region during 9th century CE, occupying territories of Bhauma-Kara rulers during this period. Sōmavaṁśīs likely originated in Kośaḷa region, as indicated by several Sōmavaṁśī inscriptions record grants to people from Kośaḷa, grants of villages located in Kośaḷa, and appointment of Kośaḷa-specific officers. The reign of Yayāti I marks beginning of Sōmavaṁśī style of temple architecture, which features form, ornamentation and iconography not previously seen in Tri-Kaḷiṅga region. But after Yayāti I’s reign, Sōmavaṁśīs went into decline due to invasions from Paramāras, Tripuri Kalacuris and Tamiḻ Cōḻas.

→ Varahi Deul, a Khākharā deuḷa type temple, in Chaurasi, Puri district, Odisha, India (Built 9th or 10th century CE; possibly under Sōmavaṃśīs) [Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varahi_Deula,_Chaurasi]

→ Devi Padahara, a pond in Lingaraj Temple Complex of Bhubaneswara constructed under king Yayāti I in 10th century CE. The pond is surrounded by 108 votive temples and liṅgaṁs [Source: Lingaraja Temple – Bhubaneswar – A Non-Hindu View]

→ Muktesvara Temple in Bhubaneswara, Odisha, India (Built 10th century CE; builder unknown). It features a low decorated enclosure wall, tōraṇa at the entrance and sculpted ceiling in its hall — the earliest known example of usage of these features. In the image of the tōraṇa, the highlighted images are of Candraśālā motifs with male heads inside. Perforated stone windows continue to be seen but with rhomboid perforations rather than square. [Source: Mukteshvara Temple - A Dream in Sandstone]

Baṅlā Rēkhā deula type temples

The earliest Rēkhā deula type temples were built usualy with square plan and facets (usually 3-facet or 5-facet plan). They would be constructed in paraboloid or pyramidal shape, and topped by āmalaka (notched stone disk) itself topped by an urn-shaped finial (kalaśa). The would also have a mesh decoration, either along the entire structure, or atleast on the corners of upper tiers.

→ Examples of early Rēkhā deula type temples:

1. A ruined Jaina Temple in Deulghata, Purulia district, West Bengal, India — features transepts and Jaina figurines all over the body (Built under Pāla dynasty 9th century CE) [Source: File:Deuls of Deulghata in Purulia. 07.jpg]

2. Pakbira Jaina temples in Pakbira village, Purulia district, West Bengal, India — built from chlorite stones. (9th-10th century CE) [Source: The ruins of Purulia temples - Media India Group]

3. Siddhesvar Temple (Temple No 5) of Begunia Temple Complex, West Bengal, India — the attached hall was built much later, probably during British colonial period, and doesnt have any roof, being covered by bamboo and waterproof material. The temple is a triple-facet (triratha) planar tower (Latina śikhara) type temple; it may have had a spire which is now lost, leaving only the notched disk. Unlike most later temples, it is made of stone. (estimated 9th century CE) [Source: Siddheshvara temple Barakar West Bengal, lying in ruins AND Trip to West Bengal - Feb. 2014 - Part-1 : Kolkata-Kalna-Shantiniketan-Surul-Barakar]

4. Sat Deul in Memari I CD block, Bardhaman Sadar South subdivision of Purba Bardhaman district, West Bengal, India — a 5-facet temple with mesh decoration all over the upper tiers. It features a solid stone disc rather than a notched one, and has a triangular corbelled-arch entrance. (Built 10th century CE) [Source: File:Sat Deul 6.jpg]

6. Partially ruined brick-built Siddheshwara Temple at Bahulara, Bankura district, West Bengal, India (estimated between 8th-10th century CE) [Source: File:Siddheshwara Temple at Bahulara, Bankura.jpg]

Some temples featured extended entrances, and/or distinct stories and associated but independent hall(s). A few temple may feature a combination of facet plans (like 3-facet on one face, 5-facet at other)

→ Examples of early Rēkhā deula type temples with porches and/or associated halls:

1. A brick-built Jaina temple at Deulghata, Purulia district, West Bengal, India — a distinct corbelled arch triangular entrance extending outwards (Built 9th century CE) [Source: File:Deuls of Deulghata in Purulia. 04.jpg]

2. A brick temple at Para village, Para CD block in Raghunathpur subdivision of Purulia district in West Bengal, India — the temple has 3 distinct storeys all of which have a rectangular floor plan. The topmost storey has decorations and facets on all sides, while the lower 2 storeys have miniature spires carved on their sides. (estimated 10th-11th century CE) [Source: File:Brick Deul in Para village at Purulia district.jpg]

3. “Sun” Temple (actualy a Jaina temple) at Sonatpal, near Bankura town, Bankura district, West Bengal, India — while the sides are 5-facet (pañcaratha) type, the front and back have triangular entrances and 3-facet (triratha) type decoration. It is ascribed to rulers of Bishnupur (7th-10th century CE) [Source: File:SUN TEMPLE (Around 11th Century AD).jpg]

4. Banda Deul in Purulia district, West Bengal, India — it has an independent associated hall visible in the right. The temple itself is made of sandstone and has 3-facet (triratha) type planar tower having transepts at lowermost portion. (estimated 11th century CE) [Source: File:Deul at Banda, Purulia WLM2016-0207.jpg]

10th century CE – 15th century CE
[Rule of Caulukyas (Solaṅkīs) during c. 940 CE – 1244 CE]

• Tripuri Kalacurī kingdom (7th century CE – 13th century CE)

  • → Ratnapura Kalacurīs [feudatory branch in parts of Chhattisgarh] (11th century CE – 13th century CE)

• Jējakabhukti Candēla kingdom (9th century CE – 13th century CE)

• Mālavā Paramāra empire (9th or 10th century CE – 1305 CE)

• Śākhambharī Cāhamāna kingdom (10th century CE – 1192 CE)

  • Jaipur Kacchvāhās [feudatories under Pr̥thvīrāja Cāhamāna III]

• Gōpagiri Kacchapaghāta kingdom (10th century CE – 12th century CE)

• Mēdapāṭa (Citrakūṭa Guhila) kingdom (10th century CE – 1303 CE)

• Anāhilavāḍa Caulukya kingdom (940 CE – 1244 CE)

  • Naddula Cāhamānas (c. 950 CE – 1197 CE)

  • Jābālipura Cāhamānas (c. 1160 CE – 1311 CE) {a branch of Naddula Cāhamānas}

  • Candravatī Paramāras (10th century CE – 12th century CE

• Sōmavaṃśī kingdom (Later Phase) (11th century CE – 12th century CE)

• Cakrakōṭa (Chindaka Nāga) kingdom (1023 CE – 1114 CE)

• Cōṛagaṅga empire (1077 CE – 1434 CE)

• Ratnapura Kalacurī kingdom (1120 CE – 1740 CE)

  • Raipur Kalacurīs (Haihaiyavaṃśīs) (14th century CE – 1758 CE) [Ratnapura Kalacurī feudatories]

• Oragallu Kākatīya empire (1163 CE – 1323 CE)

• Dhavalakka Vāghēla kingdom (1244 CE – 1304 CE)

Polities:

The origin of Tripuri Kalacurīs is uncertain. They ruled parts of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Uttar Pradesh (states of India). It is also unknown how their rule ended in 13th century CE. Ratnapura Kalacurīs were their offshoot and feudatories, ruling parts of Chhattisgarh. By 10th century CE, Tripuri Kalacurīs had consolidated their power by raiding neighbouring territories and by fighting wars with Pratihāras, Candēlas and Paramāras. They also maintained matrimonial relations with Rāṣṭrakūṭas and Kalyani Cālukyas. Hence, most of Kalacurī commissioned temples date to 10th century CE and later. Ratnapura Kalacurīs had become de facto independent under Jajalla I and officially declared independence from Tripuri Kalacurīs in c.1120 CE under Ratnadēva II. Raipur Kalacurīs seem to have originated in 14th century CE and ruled as Ratnapura Kalacurī feudatories. Both Ratnapura Kalacurīs and Raipur Kalacurīs were forced under Nagpur Marāṭhā kingdom suzerainty in 18th century CE and ceased to exist after 1758 CE.

During this period, the newly independent polities Jējakabhukti Candēlas (former Gurjara-Pratihāra feudatories), Shakambhari Cāhamānas (former Gurjara-Pratihāra feudatories) and Mālavā Paramāras (former Rāṣṭrakūṭa vassals) remained in constant conflicts with each other and Tripuri Kalacurīs, and, in case of Paramāras, with Kalyani Cālukyas as well.

The traditional origin of Māru-Gurjara architecture occurred under the reign of Anāhilavāḍa Caulukyas, called Solaṅkīs in vernacular literature. Caulukyas emerged in 10th century CE by overthrowing Cāvaḍās : the last Cāvaḍā ruler Sāmantasinha Cāvaṛā didn’t have any children so he adopted his nephew Mūlarāja who overthrew him c. 942 CE and established Caulukya dynasty. Mūlarāja’s successors fought several battles with the neighbouring rulers such as Cūḍasāmas, Paramarās and Shakambhari Cāhamānas. During the reign of Bhīma I, Ghaznavid ruler Maḥmūd ibn Sebüktegīn invaded the kingdom and raided Somnath temple during 1024-1025 CE. Caulukyas soon recovered, and the kingdom reached its zenith under the rule of Jayasimha Siddharāja and Kumārapāla in 12th century CE. Several minor dynasties, such as Jābālipura Cāhamānas, Naddula Cāhamānas, Candravatī Paramāras and Vāghēlas served as Caulukya vassals during this period. After Kumārapāla’s death, the kingdom was gradually weakened by internal rebellions, uprisings by feudatories, and invasions by Paramāras, Šansabānīs, Seuṇas & others. Taking advantage of this, Dhavalakka Vāghēlas usurped the power and established a new dynasty in 1240s CE under , although they claimed to be a branch of Caulukyas.

Citrakūṭa Guhilas served as Gurjara-Pratihāra feudatories until 10th century CE and established themselves in Citrakūṭa (modern Chittor), ruling the independent Mēdapāṭa Kingdom. Not much is known about of them, and the entire Guhila family was killed during Delhi Sultanate’s sack of Chittor in 1303 CE, but a branch called Sisô̂diyās would later establish itself at same place becoming politically significant during its existence in the region. Their temples, specifically, the 10th century CE Ambika Mata Temple, can be classified as transitional between Nāgara and Māru-Gurjara architecture.

Jejakabhukti Candēlas became independent in 10th century CE. Candēla power effectively ended around the beginning of 13th century CE, following Shakhambari Cāhamāna and Šansabānī invasions. After weakening of Candēlas, Gopagiri Kacchapaghātas ceased their allegiance with them. Their most well known works are the 9th-11th century CE temples of Khajuraho temple cluster in Madhya Pradesh, central India.

Mālavā Paramāras became independent in 9th or 10th century CE. ~972 CE, Siyaka sacked the Rāṣṭrakūṭa capital Manyakheta, and established Paramāras as a sovereign power. By the time of his successor Muñja, Mālavā region in present-day Madhya Pradesh had become the core Paramara territory, with Dhara (now Dhar) as their capital. The dynasty reached its zenith under Muñja's nephew Bhōja, whose kingdom extended from Chittor in the north to Konkan in the south, and from the Sabarmati River in the west to Vidisha in the east. The later Paramāra rulers moved their capital to Mandapa-Durga (now Mandu) after Dhara was sacked multiple times by their enemies. The invasions by Xalji Dynasty of Delhi Sultanate caused their downfall. Mahālakadēva, the last known Paramāra king, was defeated and killed by the forces of Alauddin Xalji in 1305 CE, although epigraphic evidence suggests that the Paramāra rule continued for a few years after his death.

Shakambhari Cāhamānas became independent in 10th century CE. Cāhamāna kingdom reached its zenith under Vigraharāja IV in mid-12th century CE. The dynasty's power effectively ended in 1192 CE, when the Šansabānīs defeated his nephew Pr̥thvīrāja III. Pr̥thvīrāja III’s brother Harihara was killed while leading a rebellion against Šansabānīs, while Pr̥thvīrāja III’s son Gōvindarāja IV was enthroned as a Šansabānī feudatory and established Ranastambhapura Cāhamāna kingdom. Jaipur Kacchvāhās (1128–1949 CE) i.e. Amer kingdom initially served as feudatories under Pr̥thvīrāja III before they were invaded by and forced to become feudatories of Mārwāṛ Rāṭhô̂ṛas.

Gopagiri Kacchapaghātas initially served as vassals of Gurjara-Pratihāras and Candēlas. They became de facto independent in 10th century CE and ceased allegiance with Candēlas after their weakening due to invasions by Ġaznaviyān in 11th century CE. The core Kacchapaghāta territory was northern Madhya Pradesh in central India. Kacchapaghāta rule seemed to have ended after invasions by Delhi Sultanate. It is surmised by some historians that the Kacchvāhās would have been a branch of Kacchapaghātas. Kacchvāhās mainly served as feudatories variously of Shakambhari Cāhamānas, Mārwāṛ Rāṭhô̂ras, Chittor Sisô̂diyās and later on Gūrkānīs and British Colonial Empire.

Sōmavaṃśīs revived under Yayāti II in 11th century CE and atleast during his rule controlled all 3 regions: Utkaḷa, Kaḷiṅga, Kośaḷa, as indicated by one of his inscriptions. The construction of most of Brahmeswara Temple Complex (in Bhubanesvara, Odisha, India) and of some of the structures of Lingaraja Temple Complex (in Bhubanesvara, Odisha, India) took place under them during this period.

Gaṅgas, beginning with the reign of Anantavarman in 1078 CE, began to call themselves Cōṛagaṅgas due to strong matrimonial relations with the Imperial Tamiḻ Cōḻas — Konark Sun Temple Complex, being constructed in shape of a chariot, might have been inspired by the earlier chariot shaped Cōḻa temples. The expansion of Lingaraja Temple Complex, and the construction of Puri Jagannath Temple Complex & Konark Sun Temple Complex took place under their reign. In late 12th century CE, Sōmavaṁśīs were conquered by Cōṛagaṅgas. The largest and most elaborate of Kaḷiṅga architecture temple complexes were built mainly in 12th & 13th century CE when Cōṛagaṅgas were at the peak of their power. Temples of late Cōṛagaṅga period i.e. 14th century CE onwards are visibly less decorated and simpler than those constructed at their peak, indicating a decline in their political power. Atleast since this period, Piṛhā deuḷa structures as bimānas of temples (rather than just gateways and halls) make their appearance, as indicated by 12th century CE Bhaskareswara Temple of Bhubaneswara.

Cakrakōṭa kingdom was ruled by Chindaka Nāgas, over parts of modern-day Odisha and Chhattisgarh in eastern India. Chindaka Nāgas are believed to be Karnāṭa-origin rulers arriving in eastern India during the expeditions of Madurandagan Cōḻa (1019–1021 CE). They were constantly in conflicts with their neighbours - Sōmavaṁśīs, Ratnapura Kalacurīs, Mana dynasty and Kalyani Cālukyas, and declined after incursions by Kākatīyas (the under Kalyani Cālukya suzerainty) and Ratnapura Kalacurīs. A few temples constructed under their reign can be classified under Nāgara architecture.

Oragallu Kākatīyas initially served as feudatories of Kalyani Cālukyas, but became independent in 1163 CE. They assumed sovereignty under Pratāparudra I, and unified the distinct upland and lowland cultures of Telugu lands. They primarily engaged in development of Telugu architecture, but a few examples of Nāgara architecture can be found under their reign.

Temples:

Paired Nāgara architecture temples mark their appearance at least since 12th century CE, as seen with Joda Temple Complex in Madhya Pradesh. Such temple complexes, however, usually remained uncommon.

→ An example of a pair of temples facing each other seen at Joda Temple Complex in Baihar, Balaghat District, Madhya Pradesh, central India (Built 12th century CE) [Source: Joda Temple, Baihar, Balaghat District, Madhya Pradesh]

Most of the regular features of Māru-Gurjara architecture were established during this period. This phase saw the increasing usage of combination of Latina, Śēkharī & Bhūmija formats of towers and staggered-square plans for halls in western and central Indian subcontinent. In many cases, these staggered-square halls are open on 3 sides, and led into one prāsāda at the 4th end. Every part of the temple would be profusely decorated and could feature transepts. Many kingdoms provided state patronage for temple construction, eventually leading to formation of multiple temple clusters — Khajuraho (Madhya Pradesh), Sihoniya (Madhya Pradesh), Tarang Jain Temples (Gujarat), Pavagadh Jaina Temple Cluster (Gujarat), Dilwara (Rajasthan) etc. Stepwell-temples i.e. stepwells serving temples simultaneously were also being constructed during this period.

→ Shwetambar Ajitnath Temple of Tarang Jaina Temple Cluster (Built 1161 CE under Kumārapāla Caulukya) [Source: File:Taranga Temple 2017.jpg - Wikimedia Commons] AND Parshvanatha Temple of Pavagadh Jaina Temple Cluster (Commissioned by Vāghēla minister Vāstupāla in 13th century CE) [Source: Jain temples, Pavagadh - Wikipedia] — both temples feature Bhūmija, Śēkharī and Latina formats in that order over their śikharas. This fomat became common during the reigns of Caulukyas and Vāghēlas.

→ Rani ki vav (Queen’s stepwell) in Patan, Gujarat, India — a temple-stepwell constructed like an inverted temple having 7 levels. There are profuse decorations everywhere. (Built 11th century CE; Anāhilavāḍa Caulukyas) [Source: File:Rani ki vav1.jpg - Wikipedia]

As indicated by Sēuṇa king Siṁhaṇa’s inscription, at least since 13th century CE, Kaḷiṅga architecture would have been known as a distinct temple architecture style. During this period, larger Kaḷiṅga architecture free-standing temples began to be constructed with additional structures being constructed around them, forming a temple complex with time. Temples constructed during this period almost invariably have decorative carvings, finials and attached halls. At least since this period, Piṛhā deuḷa structures as bimānas of temples (rather than just gateways and halls) make their appearance but conversely, the usage of Khākharā deuḷa structures would decline. Kaḷiṅga style temple complexes with pañcāyatana arrangment made their appearance atleast since this period with examples including Brahmeswara Temple Complex and Chitrakarini Temple Complex, both in Bhubaneswara. A few Kaḷiṅga style twin temples, like 14th century CE Gangeswara-Yamuneswara Temples, were also constructed during this period.

By this time, Bhubaneswara, Puri and Konark had become important religious sites. The name Bhubaneswara superceded the name Ekāmra-kṣētra and Kr̥ttivasa-Kaṭaka — an inscription in Lingaraja temple, dated 12th century CE, mentions the presiding deity as Tribhuvanēśvara; the name Bhubaneswar was evidently derived from Tribhuvanēśvara. {Ekamra Kshetra (temple city of Bubaneswara) represents Old Town section of Bhubaneswara at present.} Also by this time, the religious practice had developed in Tri-Kaḷiṅga region for newly established temples to symbolically pay homage to older temples by the visit of movable images of the new temples to older temples. This is particularly visible in regards to Lingaraja Temple whose movable deity image pays “annual visits” to Yamesvara Temple and Ramesvara Temple.

→ Bhaskareswara Temple in Bhubaneswar, Odisha, eastern India — among the earliest temples with a Piṛhā deuḷa type bimāna (Built 12th century CE; Cōṛagaṅgas) [Source: Bhaskareswar Temple – Bhubaneswar]

→ Pañcāyatana arrangement Kaḷiṅga architecture temple complexes : Chitrakarini Temple Complex (left) [Source: Chitrakarini Temple – Bhubaneswar] and Brahmeswar Temple Complex (right) [Source: Brahmeswara Temple – Bhubaneswar]

→ Gangeswara-Yamuneswara twin temples in Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India (13th-14th century CE; Cōṛagaṅgas) [Source: Gangeswara and Yamuneswara Temples – Bhubaneswar]

Nāgara architecture and Pre-Caulukya Māru-Gurjara architecture

Temples commissioned under Citrakūṭa Guhilas, specifically, the 10th century CE Ambika Mata Temple, can be classified as transitional between Nāgara and Māru-Gurjara architecture.

→ Ambika Mata Temple in Jagat village, Udaipur district, Rajasthan, India — represents a transitional style towards Māru-Gurjara architecture (Built ~960 CE under king Allaṭa) [Source: File:Jagat 22-76 (cropped).jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

The origin of Tripuri Kalacurī is uncertain. They ruled parts of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Uttar Pradesh (states of India). It is also unknown how their rule ended in 13th century CE. Ratnapura Kalacurīs were their offshoot and feudatories, ruling parts of Chhattisgarh.

Ratnapura Kalacurīs were an offshoot and feudatories of Tripuri Kalacurīs, and ruled parts of Chhattisgarh and Odisha. Some of the temple complexes constructed under their reign partially or completely follow Kaḷiṅga architecture as developed in preceding time period.

Some of the most prolific temple construction activities of central India during 10th and 11th century CE took place under Tripuri Kalacurīs. Temples constructed under Tripuri Kalacurīs have been almost all Rēkhā prāsāda type, mostly with attached halls. Most of their temples are largely undecorated and simple in plan, though may have multiple āmalakas over both the prāsāda and attached hall.

→ Chandreh Shiva Temple, Chandreh Village, Rampur Naikin Tehsil, Sidhi District, Madhya Pradesh, India — consists of rare circular prāsāda, connected to an otherwise rectangular vestibule and hall (Built ~970 CE; Tripuri Kalacurīs) [Source: Chandreh Shiva Temple, Chandreh Village, Rampur Naikin Tehsil, Sidhi District, Madhya Pradesh]

→ Nohleshwar Shiv Temple in Nohta, Damoh District, Madhya Pradesh, India (Built sometime between late 10th century CE - 12th century CE) [Source: Nohleshwar Shiv Temple, Nohta, Damoh District, Madhya Pradesh]

→ Virateshwar Temple in Sohagpur Banganga, Shahdol District, Madhya Pradesh, India (Built 10th century CE, possibly under Yuvarāja I) [Source: Virateshwar Temple, Sohagpur Banganga, Shahdol District, Madhya Pradesh]

→ Amarkantak Temple Group in Amarkantak, Madhya Pradesh, India (Built 11th century CE) [Source: Amarkantak - The Pride of Maikal]

1. Machchhendranatha Shiva Temple

2. Pataleshvar Temple — built below the group level, consisting of Rēkhā prāsāda connected to a Phamsaṇa tower hall

3. Vishnu Temple — two Rēkhā prāsādas situated perpendicularly, connected to a common Phamsaṇa tower hall

4. Karna Math — 3 temples over a shared platform; the common shared hall and one temple have not survived

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→ Ratnapura Kalacurī temples examples:

Mahishasur Mardini temple in Chaiturgarh fortress complex, Korba district, Chhattisgarh, India (Built 1079 CE under Pr̥thvīdeva I; Ratnapura Kalacurīs) [Source:File:(महिषासुर मर्दिनी मंदिर, चैतुरगढ़, कोरबा) Mahishasur Mardini temple Chaiturgarh Korba, Chhattisgarh.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

The two Janjgir temples in Janjgir, Janjgir-Champa district, Chhattisgarh, India (probably began under the reign of Jajalla I (1090-1120 CE); Ratnapura Kalacurīs) [Source: Janjgir - Incomplete Work of Vishvakarma]

1. Incomplete 7-facet Viṣṇu temple

2. Śiva temple having its attached hall fallen sometime after 19th century CE

The most well known constructions of Jējakabhukti Candēlas are Khajuraho temples built between 885 CE – 1050 CE. Most of Khajuraho temples are mostly of Nāgara style, but some temples show elements of Māru-Gurjara architecture. Other notable temples include Lalitpur-Chandpur temples and trikūṭa-type Makarbai Temple.

→ Lalitpur-Chandpur temples:

1. Lakshmi Narayan Temple Group, Chandpur Village, Lalitpur District, Uttar Pradesh, India (Built 9th-12th century CE) [Source: Light up Temples]

2. Vishnu Temple in Chandpur, Lalitpur District, Uttar Pradesh, India (Built 9th-12th century CE) [Source: Exploration of Chandpur in Lalitpur | Trip-4 - Explore Bundelkhand]

→ Makarbai Temple in Makarbai Village, Mahoba District, Uttar Pradesh, India — a trikūṭa type temple dedicated to Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Śiva. (Classifiable under either Nāgara or Māru-Gurjara architecture) [Source: http://mahoba.nic.in/gallery/heritage-places-of-mahoba/]

→ Khajuraho temples:

1. Vishvanath Temple Complex (Built 999 CE) — The complex (left) is arranged in pañcāyatana format and primarily follows Nāgara architecture [Source: Khajuraho Group of Monuments - Wikipedia] while its associated Nandi-maṇḍapa (right) follows a staggered-square plan with visible bays, and therefore can be definitely classified under Māru-Gurjara architecture [Source: Khajuraho – Nandi Temple]

2. Phamsaṇa prāsāda temples —

• Brahma Temple (L) [Source: File:Western group of temples khajuraho 22.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

• Varaha Temple & Lakshmi Temple (R) [Source: File:Khajuraho India, Lakshmi Temple & Varaha Temple.JPG - Wikimedia Commons]

3. Similarly constructed pañcāyatana temple complexes :

• Vishvanath Temple Complex (T) (Built 999 CE) [Source: File:Vishwanath N-MP-23.jpg - Wikipedia]

• Lakshman Temple Complex (C) (Built 939 CE) [Source: File:Khajuraho-Lakshmana temple.JPG - Wikimedia Commons]

• Kandariya Mahadev Temple Complex (B) (Built 1029 CE) [Source: Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva, Western Temples...]

→ Khajuraho’s Kandariya Mahadev Temple [Source: File:Architecture of the Khajuraho temples.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Temples layout map – Khajuraho Group of Monuments [Source: File:Khajuraho temples map.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

→ The open hall in front of Nilkanth Temple in Kalinjar Fort, Madhya Pradesh, India was added by Śrīmūrti, the teacher of then Candēla king Kīrtivarmana; the cave temple seems to exist since Gupta period (11th century CE) [Source: Puratattva]

Paramāras were more inclined towards Māru-Gurjara architecture, but occasional Nāgara architecture temples would also be built under their reign. Samarāṅgaṇasūtradhāra is an 11th century CE Saṁskr̥ta language poetic treatise on classical Indian architecture attributed to Bhōja Paramāra (r. c. 1010–1055 CE).

→ Paramāra commissioned temples examples:

1. Neelkantheshvar (Udayeshvara) Temple in Udaypur, Madhya Pradesh, India (Built 11th century CE) [Source: Udaypur - Epoch of Parmara Architecture]

2. Shiv Temple of Bari Kanoda Village, Batiyagarh Tehsil, Damoh District, Madhya Pradesh, India — a Bhūmija prasāda type temple (Built 12th century CE) [Source: Shiv Temple, Bari Kanoda Village, Batiyagarh Tehsil, Damoh District, Madhya Pradesh]

3. Siddheshvara Temple in Nemawar, Dewas district, Madhya Pradesh, India (Built early 12th century) [Source: Nemawar - The Sky Reaching Spire]

4. Incomplete Bhojeshvar Temple in Bhojpur village, Raisen district, Madhya Pradesh, India (Commissioned believed to be 11th century CE under Bhōja Paramāra) [Source: File:Bhojpur Mandir.JPG - Wikimedia Commons]

→ 11th century CE text Samarāṅgaṇasūtradhāra (attributed to king Bhōja Paramāra) dictates that in plan attached main hall’s proportion is to be regulated by Garbhagr̥ha (sanctum sanctorum). The centre of the attached main hall is in a fixed proportion to the sanctum sanctorum, its centre square has the same area. The central space is marked by four pillars forming catuṣki. The superstructure of the attached mail hall must not exceed in height the Śukanāsa of Prāsāda. Thus the height of the attached main hall depends upon the height of Prāsāda’s Śukanāsa which varies always according to temple and thus is not a fixed one. [Source: Nagara style – The Artistic Adventure of Mankind]

Gopagiri Kacchapaghātas became de facto independent in 10th century CE and most of their temples date to 11th century CE after they ceased allegiance with the weakened Candēlas. The core Kacchapaghāta territory was northern Madhya Pradesh in central India, where most of their temples are found.

→ Gopagiri Kacchapaghāta commissioned temples examples:

1. Kakanmaṭh Shiva Temple located in Sihoniya, Madhya Pradesh, India (Built 11th century CE) [Source: Kakanmath Temple, Hidden Gem of Morena - Ruins that Defy Gravity | T2B]

2. Sahasrabahu Temple in Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India — built as a paired temple complex with one large and one small temple, both featuring staggered-square floorplan. (Built 11th century CE) [Source: Sasbahu Temple, Gwalior - Wikipedia]

Shakambhari Cāhamāna kingdom reached its zenith under Vigraharāja IV in mid-12th century CE. Most of the temples constructed under them date to 11th and 12th century CE.

→ Harshanath Temple in Sikar district, Rajasthan, India (Commissioned c. 973 CE by Saiva ascetic Bhavarakta a.k.a. Allaṭa during the reign of Vigraharāja I) [Source: Harshnath Temple - Wikipedia]

→ Mahanaleshvara Shiv Temple Complex in Chittorgarh, Rajasthan, India (Built 11th or 12th century CE) [Source: Menal Shiva Temple Chittorgarh with Amazing Sculptures - i Share]

1. Entrance — the outermost pillars have a fluted design

2. The temple with Bhūmija type śikhara and staggered-square floorplan; the Nandi pavilion can be seen at its front. The temple also features perforated stone windows.

→ Bisaldeo temple in Bisalpur, Tonk district, Rajasthan, India — a plain Rēkhā prasāda prāsāda connected to domed staggered-square plan hall (Built 12th century CE under Vigraharāja IV) [Source: File:Bisaldeo temple.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

Chindaka Nāgas were a Karnāṭa origin dynasty that settled in and ruled Chakrakota Mandala region (Bastar and Koraput), hence the name of their kingdom Cakrakōṭa. Telugu Cōḻas of the same region became their feudatories.

→ Temples of Barsur, Bastar district, Chhattisgarh, India built under Chindaka Nāga reign:

1. Chandradityeshvar Temple (Built 1060 CE by Telugu Cōḻa feudatory Candrāditya)

2. Mama Bhanja Temple — a 5-facet Latina śikhara temple (Built 11th century CE under Chindaka Nāgas) [Source: Puratattva]

→ Temples of Bhoramdeo complex, in Chhapri village, Kabirdham district, Chhattisgarh, India built under Chindaka Nāga reign:

1. Madwa Mahal/Dulha Mahal (Built probably 11th century CE or 14th century CE ; historian Mangaland Jha places it in 16th century CE) [Sources: Bhoramdeo: Style, History & Legend | Sahapedia by Anzaar Nabi AND Puratattva]

2. Cherki Mahal (Built probably 11th century CE or 14th century CE ; historian Mangaland Jha places it in 16th century CE) [Source: Bhoramdeo: Style, History & Legend | Sahapedia by Anzaar Nabi]

→ Narayanpal Temple near Chitrakote falls, Bastar district, Chhattisgarh, India built (Built 11th century CE) [Source: http://bastar.gov.in/en/tourist-place/narayanpal-temple/]

Oragallu Kākatīyas initially served as feudatories of Kalyani Cālukyas, but became independent in 1163 CE. They assumed sovereignty under Pratāparudra I, and unified the distinct upland and lowland cultures of Telugu lands. They primarily engaged in development of Telugu architecture, but a few examples of Nāgara architecture can be found under their reign.

→ Mahadev Temple in Sadulpur, Bela, Adilabad district, Telangana, India — built in more or less typical Nāgara architecture with Śēkharī śikhara type tower. (Built 11th-12th century CE) [Source: Mahadev Temple]

→ Kesavardhana Panchamukha Lingeswara temple in Raikal, Jagtial district, Telangana, India — a T-shape trikūṭa type temple. (Built 13th century CE) [Source: Kesavardhana Panchamukha Lingeswara temple (Trikuta)]

There are many other Nāgara architecture temples and temple complexes of this period that cannot be indisputably put under any of these polities. There are also a few examples of temples constructed by non-royal devotees.

→ Bhand Deul of Arang Jaina Temples in Raipur district, Chhattisgarh, India (Dated to 11th century, possibly under Ratnapura Kalacurīs) [Source: Puratattva]

→ Lakhamandal temple complex in Lakhamandal, Dehradun district, Uttarakhand, India (Dated 12th-13th century CE) [Source: File:Laka.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Baijnath Temple in Baijnath, Kangra District, Himachal Pradesh, India. It was built in 13th century CE by two local merchants named Ahuka and Manyuka. The attached hall has a stepped pyramidal hipped roof and features entrances on 3 sides as well as “quarter-prāsāda” projections on all corners. [Source: File:BaijNath.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

Māru-Gurjara architecture

The traditional origin of Māru-Gurjara architecture occurred under the reign of Anāhilavāḍa Caulukyas, called Solaṅkīs in vernacular literature.

→ The below architraved Tōraṇa-type gateway is “double-storied”, having 4 pillars at base, with the lower architrave supporting a 2-pillared Tōraṇa. This indicates that profusely decorated and complicated Tōraṇa-type gateways had come into usage at least since this period. Image of entrance of Rudra Mahalaya Complex at Siddhpur in Patan district of Gujarat, India. (Built 943–1140 CE) [Source: File:Four great pillars and architrave of the ruined Rudra Mahalaya Temple, Siddhapur.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

→ The profusely decorated ceilings can commonly be seen in temples constructed in this period, as seen in Mahavira Temple (Built 1062 CE) of Kumbhariya Jaina Temple Group in Kumbhariya, Banaskantha district, Gujarat, India [Source: File:Kumbhariya Jain temple - Ceiling (2).jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Examples of Caulukya commissioned temples:

1. Bavka Shiva Temple Complex in Dahod, Gujarat, India — the complex is constructed in pañcāyatana (quincunx) format (Built 10th century CE) [Source: Bavka Shiva Temple, Dahod, Gujarat]

2. Modhera Sun Temple Complex (built 10th century CE), and associated Stepwell (built 11th century CE) in Modehra, Gujarat, India — both constructed by Caulukya dynasty. The stepwell has many icons carved into transepts and miniature temple-like structures.

2a. A view of the temple complex [Source: File:Sun Temple Panorama.jpg - Wikipedia]

2b. Plan of the temple complex [Source: North Indian style temple / Nagara style temple - archEstudy]

3. Rani ki vav (Queen’s stepwell) in Patan, Gujarat, India, is constructed like an inverted temple having 7 levels. There are profuse decorations everywhere. (Built 11th century CE) [Source: File:Rani ki vav1.jpg - Wikipedia]

3. Virupaksha Mahadev temple in Bilpank village, Ratlam district, Madhya Pradesh, India — the main entrance faces east and is a part of a staggered square open hall (Built 11th century CE under Jayasiṁha Siddharāja; main tower renovated under Sailana State) [Source: Puratattva]

5. Shwetambar Ajitnath Temple of Tarang Jaina Temple Cluster near Kheralu in Mehsana district, Gujarat, India — this temple follows specifications of the 12th century CE Saṁskr̥ta text Aparājitapr̥cchā, itself drawing upon the earlier text Samarāṅgaṇasūtradhāra. (Built 1161 CE under Kumārapāla) [Source: File:Taranga Temple 2017.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

Vāghēlas’ reign witnessed the construction of both temple stepwells and free-standing temples. They primarily built upon the earlier Caulukya temples, but their temples feature a relatively higher amounts of decorations.

Temple stepwells constructed under Vāghēlas include Ra Khengar Vav (Junagadh district, Gujarat, India) and Madhav Vav (in Wadhwan town of Surendranagar district, Gujarat, India).

Many of the free-standing temples built during Vāghēla rule were commissioned by the brothers Vāstupāla & Tējapāla, who served as ministers under the kings Vīradhavala and Viśāla. The temples include — Luna Vasahi of Dilwara Temples (Mount Abu, Rajasthan, India), Vastupala Vihar of Girnar Jain Temples (Junagadh, Junagadh district, Gujarat, India), Pavagadh Jaina Temple Cluster (on Pavagadh hill in Panchmahal district, Gujarat, India) etc.

→ Luna Vasahi interior — all pillars are connected in pairs to each other via Makara-Tōraṇa lintels, creating false gateways everywhere (Commissioned by Vāstupāla & Tējapāla, completed ~1240 CE) [Source: File:Dilwara Temple - Luna Vasahi.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Vastupala Vihar of Girnar Jain Temples in Junagadh, Junagadh district, Gujarat, India: A view of the temple [Source: File:Girnar Jain temple - Vastupala Vihara.jpg - Wikimedia Commons] AND Floorplan of the temple [Source: File:Vastupala temple, Girnar Gujarat.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Pavagadh Jaina Temple Cluster — Suparshvanath Temple and Chandraprabha Temple can seen having staggered-square plan halls with domed roofs. (Commissioned by Vāstupāla in 13th century CE) [Source: Jain temples, Pavagadh - Wikipedia]

1. Parshvanatha temple

2. Suparshvanath Temple

3. Chandraprabha Temple

Unassignable/unattributed temples.

→ Rukmini Mata Temple in Devbhoomi Dwarka district, Gujarat, India (Built 12th century CE) [Source: gujarattourism.com/saurashtra/devbhoomi-dwarka/rukmini-temple.html]

→ Abhapur Jaina Temple Cluster in Abhapur, Polo Forest, Sabarkantha district, Gujarat, India (15th century CE; also arguably classifiable under Nāgara architecture) [Source: Jain temples, Abhapur - Wikipedia]

Kaḷiṅga architecture

This phase saw larger free-standing temples being constructed with additional structures being constructed around them, forming a temple complex with time. Temples constructed during this period almost invariably have decorative carvings, finials and attached halls.

At least since this period, Piṛhā deuḷa structures as bimānas of temples (rather than just gateways and halls) make their appearance, as indicated by 12th century CE Bhaskareswara Temple of Bhubaneswara. Conversely, the usage of Khākharā deuḷa structures would decline.

→ Bhaskareswara Temple in Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India — among the earliest temples with a Piṛhā deuḷa type bimāna (Built 12th century CE; Cōṛagaṅgas) [Source: Bhaskareswar Temple – Bhubaneswar]

Kaḷiṅga style temple complexes with pañcāyatana arrangement i.e. main temple surrounded by 4 smaller subsidiary temple make their appearance atleast since this period. {Such temple complexes could already be seen with Nāgara and Māru-Gurjara architecture earlier}. Examples include Brahmeswara Temple Complex and Chitrakarini Temple Complex, both in Bhubaneswara.

→ Pañcāyatana arranegment Kaḷiṅga architecture temple complexes : Chitrakarini Temple Complex (left) [Source: Chitrakarini Temple – Bhubaneswar] and Brahmeswar Temple Complex (right) [Source: Brahmeswara Temple – Bhubaneswar]

A few twin temples were also constructed during this period.

1. Sari-Suka Temples in Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India — Suka temple’s jagamōhana is fallen, giving impression of a small temple. (Built 13th century CE; Cōṛagaṅgas) [Source: Puratattva]

2. Gangeswara-Yamuneswara Temples in Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India — similar Rēkhā deuḷa temples (13th-14th century CE; Cōṛagaṅgas) [Source: Gangeswara and Yamuneswara Temples – Bhubaneswar]

By this time, Bhubaneswara, Puri and Konark had become important religious sites. The name Bhubaneswara superceded the name Ekāmra-kṣētra and Kr̥ttivasa-Kaṭaka — an inscription in Lingaraja temple, dated 12th century CE, mentions the presiding deity as Tribhuvanēśvara; the name Bhubaneswar was evidently derived from Tribhuvanēśvara. {Ekamra Kshetra (temple city of Bubaneswara) represents Old Town section of Bhubaneswara at present.}

Also by this time, the religious practice had developed for newly established temples to symbolically pay homage to older temples by the visit of movable images of the new temples to older temples. This is particularly visible in regards to Lingaraja Temple whose movable deity image pays “annual visits” to Yamesvara Temple and Ramesvara Temple.

As indicated by Sēuṇa king Siṁhaṇa’s inscription, at least since 13th century CE, Kaḷiṅga architecture would have been known as a distinct temple architecture style.

During this period, temple constructons were mainly undertaken under Sōmavaṁśīs in 11th century CE and Cōṛagaṅgas in 12th-14th century CE. Most of the large-scale Cōṛagaṅga temple constructions occurred during 12th & 13th century CE while temples of late Cōṛagaṅga period i.e. 14th century CE are visibly less decorated and simpler than those constructed at their peak, indicating a decline in their political power.

→ Sōmavaṁśī commissioned temples/temple complexes examples:

1. Brahmeswara Temple Complex in Bhubaneswar, Odisha, eastern India — the main temple is surrounded by 4 smaller temples in quincunx format (i.e. pañcāyatana arrangment), has an attached hall with an inverted lotus shaped top (Built 9th-11th century CE with most of the construction in 11th century CE) [Source: File:Brahmeswara Temple, Bhubaneswar.JPG - Wikipedia]

2. Lingaraja Temple Complex in Bhubanesvara, Odisha, eastern India — Its construction was initiated in 7th century CE, with Performance hall, Offerings Hall & Assembly Hall constructed in 12th century CE under Sōmavaṃśīs. A view of the complex (left) [Source: File:Lingaraj Temple Complex.jpg - Wikimedia Commons] AND Plan of the main temple (L2R) : bimāna, assembly hall, performance hall and offerings hall [Source: File:11th century Lingaraja temple, Bhubaneswar Odisha India.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

3. Bharati Math, a Sanatanist monastery complex in Bhubaneswar, Odisha, eastern India. The below pictured temples consist of Bharati Matha Burial Temples I to IX believed to house the remains of 9 former monastery heads. (Established 11th century CE by Yayāti II of Sōmavaṃśī dynasty) [Source: Bharati Matha and Talesvara Temple – Bhubaneswar]

Gaṅgas, beginning with the reign of Anantavarman in 1078 CE, began to call themselves Cōṛagaṅgas due to strong matrimonial relations with the Imperial Tamiḻ Cōḻas — the Konark Sun Temple Complex, being constructed in shape of a chariot, might have been inspired by the earlier chariot shaped Cōḻa temples. The expansion of Lingaraja Temple Complex, and the construction of Puri Jagannath Temple Complex & Konark Sun Temple Complex took place under their reign. In late 12th century CE, Sōmavaṁśīs were conquered by Cōṛagaṅgas.

The largest and most elaborate of the temple complexes were built mainly in 12th & 13th century CE when Cōṛagaṅgas were at the peak of their power. Temples of late Cōṛagaṅga period i.e. 14th century CE onwards are visibly less decorated and simpler than those constructed at their peak, indicating a decline in their political power. Atleast since this period, Piṛhā deuḷa structures as bimānas of temples (rather than just gateways and halls) make their appearance, as indicated by 12th century CE Bhaskareswara Temple of Bhubaneswara.

→ Cōṛagaṅga commissioned temples/temple complexes examples:

1. Bhaskareswara Temple in Bhubaneswar, Odisha, eastern India — among the earliest temples with a Piṛhā deuḷa type bimāna (Built 12th century CE) [Source: Bhaskareswar Temple – Bhubaneswar]

2. Jagannath Temple Complex in Puri, Odisha, eastern India — most of the structures were commissioned by Anantavarman Cōṛagaṅga in 12th century CE [Source: File:Shri Jagannatha Temple.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

3. Surya Temple Complex in Konark, Odisha, eastern India — the bimāna of the main temple has fallen (Built 13th century CE under king Narasimha) [Source: Konark Sun Temple - Wikipedia]

4. Ananta Vasudeva Temple Complex in Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India — mainly resembling Lingaraj Temple in form (Built 13th century CE under queen Candrikā) [Source: File:Ananta Vasudev.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

5. Meghesvara Temple Complex in Bhubaneswar, Odisha, eastern India — one of the earliest examples of Navaratha (9-facet) Rēkhā deuḷa type temple (Built 13th century CE) [Source: File:Megheswar temple Bhubaneswar (2).jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

6. Chateswara Temple Complex in Kishinapur village of Salipur, Cuttack district, Odisha, eastern India— one of the few examples of Śēkharī-Śikhara Rēkhā deuḷa type temples of Kaḷiṅga architecture (Built 13th century CE) [Source: File:Chateswar Temple.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

7. Gangeswari Temple in Bayalish Bati village, Puri district, Odisha, India — dedicated to the family deity of Gaṅgas i.e. Gaṅgēśvarī. It features decorative multifoil gateways over windows and entrance (Built 13th century CE) [Source: Gangeswari Temple – Home to the Architect and Builders of Konark ?]

8. Sari-Suka Twin Temples in Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India — Suka temple’s jagamōhana is fallen, giving impression of a small temple. (Built 13th century CE) [Source: Puratattva]

9. Gangeswara-Yamuneswara Twin Temples in Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India — similar Rēkhā deuḷa temples with minimal decorations (13th-14th century CE) [Source: Gangeswara and Yamuneswara Temples – Bhubaneswar]

10. Bakresvara Temple in Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India — late Cōṛagaṅga period, visibly less decorated and simpler than those constructed at Cōṛagaṅga peak (Built 14th century CE) [Source: Bakresvara Temple – Bhubaneswar]

11. Mangaleswara Temple in Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India — late Cōṛagaṅga period with a smaller scale and near absence of decorations (Built 14th century CE) [Source: Mangaleswara Temple – Bhubaneswar]

→ Nāga-Nāgī pillars in Cōṛagaṅga commissioned temples/temple complexes examples:

1. Nāga-Nāgī pillarsa at a window of Suka Temple of Sari-Suka Twin Temples in Bhubaneswar, Odisha [Source: Suka and Sari Temples – Bhubaneswar]

15th century CE – 18th century CE

• Malla kingdoms of Nepal

  • Malla Kingdom/Nepal Kingdom (1201 CE – 1769 CE)

  • Bhaktapur Kingdom (1428 CE – 1769 CE)

  • Kantipur Kingdom (1484 CE – 1768 CE)

  • Lalitpur Kingdom (1500 CE – 1768 CE)

• Mārwāṛ Rāṭhō̄ṛa kingdom (1226 CE – 1581 CE ; independent rule)

• Māṇḍavanagara Sēna kingdom (1290 CE – 18th century CE)

• Mēdapāṭa (Cittō̄ṛa Sisō̄diyā) Kingdom (1326 CE – 1615 CE)

• Pāṭanāgaṛa Cō̄hāṇa kingdom (1360 CE – 1948 CE)

• Gwalior Tōmara kingdom (c. 1390 CE – 16th century CE)

• Gujarat Sultanate (1407 CE – 1573 CE)

• Gajapati Empire (1434 CE – 1541 CE)

• Second Gūrkāni Empire (1526 CE – 1857 CE)

  • Darbhanga Raj (1557 CE – 18th century CE) [Gūrkānī feudatories]

  • Orchha Bundēlas (c. 1570 CE – 18th century CE) [Gūrkānī feudatories]

  • Mēdapāṭa Sisō̄diyās (1615 CE – 1707 CE) [Gūrkānī feudatories]

  • Mārwāṛ Rāṭhō̄ṛas (1583 CE – 18th century CE) [Gūrkānī feudatories]

Polities:

In mountainous regions of northern Indian subcontinent, Malla dynasty and Sēna dynasty had established themselves in Himalayas. Malla dynasty ruled Kathmandu Valley in Nepal from 1201 CE to 1769 CE. The first Malla kingdom was established in 1201 CE, and later divided into 3 kingdoms by its last king Jayayakṣya Malla leading to the formation of Bhaktapur, Kantipur and Lalitpur Malla Kingdoms. Māṇḍavanagara Sēna kingdom emerged from the remnants of Sēna empire after its the destruction by Baxtiyār Xalji, a general of Šansabānīs. Māṇḍavanagara Sēna kingdom was centred in present-day Himachal Pradesh, with its capital Māṇḍavanagara (present-day Mandi) founded in 16th century CE.

During 13th-15th century CE, Ghaznavid empire, Šansabānī empire, Delhi Sultanate and Gujarat Sultanate launched numerous invasions in western, central and southern Indian subcontinent. Delhi Sultanate’s invasions caused the demise of Guhila Mēdapāṭa Kingdom, Kacchapaghātas, Paramāras, Vāghēlas, Oragallu Kākatīyas, Devagiri Sēuṇas and Dwarasamudra Hoysaḷas.

The major polities to emerge in western and central Indian subcontinent were Mārwāṛ Rāṭhō̄ṛa kingdom Mēdapāṭa Sisō̄diyā kingdom, Malwa Sultanate and Gujarat Sultanate. Mārwāṛ Rāṭhō̄ṛas had already established themselves in 13th century CE, but their high point came in 15th century CE while Sisō̄diyā branch of Guhilas regained control of Chittor in 1326 CE under Hammīra Sisō̄diyā, establishing the independent Mēdapāṭa kingdom. Both kingdoms were later be forced to accept suzerainty of Gūrkānīs, respectively in 1583 CE and 1615 CE. Rāṭhō̄ṛas and Sisō̄diyās remained Gūrkānī feudatories until 1707 CE after which they rose to rebellion, but later on had to face Marāṭhās who allowed limited sovereignty but exacted heavy tribute. Rāṭhō̄ṛas and Sisō̄diyās finally became feudatories of British Empire as Jodhpur Princely State and Udaipur Princely State respectively in 1818 CE.

Delhi Sultanate installed governors in Malwa region and Gujarat, both of which declared independence later on, establishing Malwa Sultanate and Gujarat Sultanate — all three were overthrown by Gūrkānīs. Limited temple construction activities took place under Gujarat Sultanate and Second Gūrkāni empire in northern and western Indian subcontinent.

In eastern Indian subcontinent, Gajapati Empire emerged as the major power by overthrowing Cōṛagaṅgas and remained in conflicts with Vijayanagar Empire of southern India. It remained the greatest power of Tri-Kaḷiṅga region till early 16th century CE when it was overthrown by Bhoi dynasty. Pāṭanāgaṛa Cō̄hāṇa kingdom emerged in 1360 CE after Ramai Deva of Cō̄hāṇa dynasty overthrew Hattahamir Deb, the administrator of the region as Cōṛagaṅga Empire started weakening following invasions from the northern part of the subcontinent. Its relationship with Gajapati empire is uncertain.

Temples:

Nāgara architecture temples built under Māṇḍavanagara Sēna kingdom exhibit a continuum with those of Himachal Pradesh (northern India) during earlier period. By contrast, Malla dynasty’s temples in Nepal feature decorative motifs which are mostly Nepal-specific.

Māru-Gurjara architecture temples of this period show an increasing amount of scultptures and decorations. The usage of domes and arches increased considerably. The stepwell-temples constructed under Gujarat Sultanate show a blend of Mohemmedan-associated motifs like vines, flowers and graphics with sculptures of Sanatanist and Jaina deities. Bāṅlā Cālā architecture marked its popular usage since this period, with such roofing used over pavillions and halls commonly.

Kaḷiṅga architecture temple complexes by contrast show some degree of decline in terms of scale. Piṛhā deuḷas became more common, and standalone temples/main temples would also be constructed more commonly in Piṛhā deuḷa format — this phenomenon continued after the fall of Gajapati empire as well.

Nāgara architecture

Malla dynasty ruled Kathmandu Valley in Nepal from 1201 CE to 1769 CE. The first Malla kingdom was established in 1201 CE, and later divided into 3 kingdoms by its last king Jayayakṣya Malla leading to the formation of Bhaktapur, Kantipur and Lalitpur Malla Kingdoms. These kingdoms mainly constructed temples following Newa Architecture but some examples of Nāgara architecture can also be found. The decorative motifs on many of these temples are mostly Nepal-specific.

→ Malla dynasty commissioned temples:

1. Mahaboudha Temple in Lalitpur, Nepal (Built 1585–1601 CE, rebuilt after 1934 earthquake) [Source: File:Mahaboudha (9651389724).jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

2. Mahadeva Temple in Bhaktapur, Nepal — a Sarvatōbhadra type temple. The temple measures 11.3m in height and primarily comprises red brick. Stone columns support the four porticos, whereas wood is used for lintels and internal structural support. Overhead, metal is used to create bright, shining faces for the enshrined icon. The sanctum sanctorum houses a caturmukha liṅgaṁ-yōni pointing west toward a stone image of Nandi. (Built 16th century CE) [Source: Mahadeva (Shiva) Temple, Bhaktapur, Nepal]

3. Krishna Temple in Patan, Nepal (Built 1631-37 CE) [Source: Krishna Mandir Temple, Patan, Nepal]

4. Lon Degah (Stone Temple) in Kirtipur, Nepal (commenced estimated 16 January 1665 CE under Śrīnivāsa Malla) [Source: Lodegal (Lon Degah) Temple, Kirtipur, Nepal]

5. Vatsala Devi Temple in Bhaktapur Durbar Square, Nepal (Built 1696 CE) [Source: File:Vatsala Bhagwati & Pasupati Temple Bhaktapur Durbar Square Bhaktapur Nepal Rajesh Dhungana (2).jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

6. Siddhi Lakshmi Temple in Bhaktapur Durbar Square, Nepal (Built 17th century CE) [Source: Siddhi Lakshmi Temple, Bhaktapur, Nepal]

7. Badrinath Temple in Bhaktapur Durbar Square, Nepal (Built early 18th century CE) [Source: Badrinath Temple, Bhaktapur, Nepal]

8. Chyasim (8-sided, octagon) Deval Krishna Temple in Patan, Nepal (Built early 18th century CE) [Source: Chyasim Deval Krishna Temple, Patan, Nepal]

Māṇḍavanagara Sēna kingdom was centred in present-day Himachal Pradesh (northern India), with its capital Māṇḍavanagara (present-day Mandi) founded in 16th century CE. Its temples are a continuum of Himachal Pradesh’s earlier temples : Triloknath temple is quite similar to 13th century CE Baijnath Temple in many design aspects.

→ The below temple complexes constructed under Māṇḍavanagara Sēnas have similar main temples featuring Pañca-ratha Latina śikharas with partially ridged faces, and halls with hipped roofs. The design is similar to, and possibly based on the earlier Baijnath Temple.

1. Trilokinath Temple in Mandi, Himachal Pradesh, northern India — features hall with and “quarter-prāsāda” projections on all corners and balconies on 2 of the faces (commissioned c.1520 CE by Sultan, the queen of Ajbar Sēna)

[Source: File:TRILOKINATH TEMPLE FULL VIEW.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

2. Panchavaktra Temple Complex in Mandi, Himcahal Pradesh, northern India — the main temple is similar to Triklokinath Temple above but the attached hall doesnt have balconies. (Built /restored 17th-18th century CE under Sidha Sēna (r. 1684-1727 CE)) [Source: File:Panchvaktra Temple, Mandi (SIDE VIEW).jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Tarna Temple in Mandi, Himachal Pradesh, northern India — features Bāṅlā cālā-like curved roofs and entrances similar to Bāṅlā temples. (Built 17th century CE under Śyāma Sēna (r. 1644-1675 CE))

[Source:File:Tarnatemplemandi.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

Unassignable/unattributable temples and non-royal commissioned temples.

→

Jugal Kishor Temple in Vrindavan, Uttar Pradesh, India (Built 17th century CE during Gūrkāni rule, possibly by their feudatories) [Source: Untold Story Of Shri Jugal Kishore Temple Vrindavan]

Māru-Gurjara architecture

Major developments during this period took place under Mārwāṛ Rāṭhō̄ṛas and Mēdapāṭa Sisō̄diyās who established numerous temples in their major cities, chiefly the important fortresses under their control. Both Sanatanist and Jaina Temples can be seen constructed during this period.

Rāṭhō̄ṛas established Mārwāṛ in 1226 CE under Siha Rāṭhô̂ṛa. The kingdom had its capitals at Pali (1243–1395 CE), Mandore (1395–1459 CE) and finally at Jodhpur, a city established by the ruler Jōdhā Rāṭhō̄ṛa. Additionally, Jōdhā Rāṭhô̂ṛa’s son Bīkā Rāṭhō̄ṛa established Bikaner city as a separate kingdom. Both kingdoms became feudatories of Gūrkānīs, and later on became British Princely state s Jodhpur State and Bikaner State.

→ Mārwāṛ Rāṭhō̄ṛa commissioned temples examples:

1. Chamunda Mata Temple in Mehrangarh, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, north western India (Built 1460 CE under Jōdha Rāṭhō̄ṛa) [Source: Chamunda Mataji Temple]

2. Mandore Gardens Temples [Source: The Story Behind Jodhpur's Abandoned Mandore Gardens]

3. Achalnath Shivalaya in Mandore incorporates onion domes constructed over the attached hall and the Bāṅlā Cālā type roofs that form the porches around the attached hall (Built 1531 CE) [Source: Mandore Gardens in Jodhpur, Rajasthan | Sightseeing Tours in Jodhpur]

Mēdapāṭa kingdom established itself with Chittor as its capital. Multiple temples were constructed during its reign, especially in the fortresses Kumbhalgarh and Chittorgarh.

It remained in constant conflict with Delhi Sultanate and Second Gūrkānī empire. It would remain independent until 1615 CE when it was forced under suzerainty by Gūrkānīs. It became independent again 1707 CE following the death of Gūrkānī emperor Muhiuddin Muhammad, but had to face Marāṭhās who allowed limited sovereignty but exacted heavy tribute. Owing to bad financial condition due to paying tributes to Marāṭhās, Sisô̂diyās were forced to become a British Princely state as Udaipur State in 1818 CE.

→ Eklingji Temple Complex in Udaipur, Rajasthan, India — Eklingji was the tutelary deity of Sisô̂diyās (Established 14th century CE, expanded subsequently) [Source: Eklingji Temple Udaipur (Timings, History, Entry Fee, Images, Aarti, Location & Phone)]

→ Temples of Kumbhalgarh (examples):

1. Chaturbhuj Vishnu temple [Source: File:Charbhuja Vishnu Temple,Kumbhalgarh Fort.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

2. Trikuta Temple, dedicated to Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Śiva — a rare example of a Trikūṭa type Māru-Gurjara architecture temple (15th century CE) [Source: File:Temple in Kumbalgarh fortress 01.JPG - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Temples of Chittorgarh (examples):

1. Meera Temple [Source: File:Rajasthan-Chittore Garh 09.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

2. A Jaina Temple [Source: File:Chittorgarh fort 37.JPG - Wikimedia Commons]

4. Kalika Mata Temple (Original structure dates to 8th century CE, present structure built 14th century CE) [Source: Kalika Mata Mandir Chittorgarh]

5. Samadhisvara Temple (Originally built 11th century CE under possibly Bhōja Paramāra, reconstructed 14th-15th century CE under Mōkāl Singh Sisō̄diyā) [Source: Search media - Wikimedia Commons]

The rule of Gujarat Sultanate also saw limited temple construction, although its rulers were also involved in destruction of temples under other kingdoms. State patronage mainly extended to stepwell-temples (as in Adalaj Stepwell) while regular temples were constructed mainly by ministers (as with Pittalhar Temple of Dilwara temple cluster) and other wealthy devotees.

The stepwell-temples constructed under Gujarat Sultanate show a blend of Mohemmedan-associated motifs like vines, flowers and graphics with sculptures of Sanatanist and Jaina deities.

→ Pittalhar Temple of Dilwara temple cluster (Funded by Bhima Shah, a minister of Nasīr-ud-Dīn Maḥmud I, between 1316-1432 CE) [Source: File:Dilwara Pittalhar Temple.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Bai Harir Sultani Stepwell in Asarwa, near Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India (Built 1485 CE) [Source: File:Dada Harir Stepwell - top view.JPG - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Adalaj Stepwell or Rudabai Stepwell in Adalaj village, close to Gandhinagar city in Gandhinagar district, Gujarat, India (construction started under Vīra Siṅgha Vāghēla but completed under Nasīr-ud-Dīn Maḥmud I) [Source: Adalaj Stepwell Ahmedabad (Entry Fee, Timings, History, Built by, Images & Location)]

Gūrkānīs didn’t sponsor temples directly, but their feudatories could and did commission temples during this period, particularly .

Community sponsored temples also continued to be built under their reign. In 17th century CE, most of the present-day temples of Palitana temples in Gujarat, India were constructed. In 1656 CE, Gūrkānī emperor Šihāb-al-Dīn Muḥammad X̂orram's son Muḥammad Murād Baxš (the then Governor of Gujarat) granted Palitana villages to the prominent Jaina merchant Śāntidāsa Jhavērī, a Śvētāmbara Jaina. Subsequently, all taxes were also exempted, helping the temple town prosper further.

→ Gūrkānī feudatories established temples:

1. Jagat Shiromani Temple Complex in Amer, Jaipur district, Rajasthan, India (Built 1599–1608 CE under Mān Siṅgh Kacchvāhā I of Amer kingdom) [Source: Wikiwand]

2. Jagannath Rai Temple Complex, now called Jagadish Temple Complex, in Udaipur, Udaipur district, Rajasthan, India — the main temple is a typical Māru-Gurjara architecture temple, with a double-storied staggered-square plan hall leading into Bhūmija-Śēkharī-Latina hybrid tower prāsāda. (Built 1651 CE under Jagat Siṅgh Sisō̄diyā I of Mēdapāṭa kingdom) [Source: Visit Jagdish Temple in Udaipur Rajasthan | Picnicwale]

Unassignable/unattributable temples and non-royal commissioned temples.

→ Chaturmukh Dharan Vihar Temple Complex of Ranakpur Temple Group, Ranakpur, Pali district, Rajasthan, India — This complex shows an increasing shift towards temple complexes which utilise subsidiary temples as enclosures for the main temple. (Built 14th-15th century CE funded by Jaina merchant Dharna Shah) [Source: File:Chaumukha Jain temple at Ranakpur in Aravalli range near Udaipur Rajasthan India.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Parshvanatha Chaumukha Temple part of Dilwara temples of Mount Abu, Sirohi, Rajasthan, north western India (Built by Sangvi Mandlik and his family in 1458–1459 CE) [Source: File:Dilwara Prashvantha Temple (2).jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Dwarkadhish Temple Complex in Devbhoomi Dwarka district, Gujarat, India (present structure built 15th-16th century CE) [Source: File:Dwaraka.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Bhanda Shah Jain Temple in Bikaner, Rajasthan, India (Construction started by Bhanda Oswal and his brother in 1468 CE, and completed by his daughter in 1514 CE) [Source: Bhandashah Jain Temple Travel Guide]

→ Shamlaji Temple on the banks of the Meshvo river, Aravalli district, Gujarat, India (Present structure built 15th-16th century CE, repairs done in 18th century CE) [Source: Shamlaji - Wikipedia]

→ Kaleshwar Mahadev Temple, Maheshwar, Khargone District, Madhya Pradesh, India (Built 1622 CE) [Source: Narmada Parikrama: Kaleshwar Mahadev Temple, Maheshwar, Khargone District, Madhya Pradesh]

→ Palitana Temples on Shatrunjaya hill, Palitana, Bhavnagar district, Gujarat, western India — Some temples can be seen having domes on their main halls. Staggered square plan, and decorations combining bhūmija and śēkharī tower plans are also visible (Built mostly 17th century CE and afterwards) [Source: File:Palitana.jpg - Wikipedia]

→ Sri Digambar Jain Lal Mandir Complex in Chandni Chowk, Delhi, northern India (Established 1656 CE, with further additions after 1878 CE) [Source: File:Digambar Jain Lal Mandir, Chandni Chowk, Delhi.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

Kaḷiṅga architecture

Gajapati Empire undertook construction and expansion of multiple temple complexes. Jagannath Temple Complex’s Mēghanāda wall would be constructed under their reign. Simhachalam Lakshmi Varaha Narasimha Temple Complex (in Simhachalam, Andhra, India) received grants under Gajapatis: 9 inscriptions written in Odia language recorded the contributions by Kapilēndra, Puruṣōttama and Pratāparudra.

→ Gajapati empire commissioned temples:

1. Kapileswar Temple Complex in Bhubaneswar, Odisha, eastern India (Built 15th century CE) [Source: File:Kapilesvarara Panorama (1).jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

2. Kusesvara-Labesvara twin temples in Bhubaneswar, Odisha, eastern India (Built 15th century CE) [Source: Kusesvara and Labesvara Temples – Bhubaneswar]

3. Varahanath Temple Complex in Jajpur, Odisha, India (Built 15th-16th century CE) [Source: Birija Temple, Jajpur – Gada kshetra – Nabhi Gaya – the second Srikshetra of Orissa.]

4. Annakotisvara Siva Temple in Latadeipur, Gondia tehsil, Dhenkanal district, Odisha, eastern India. (Built 16th century CE) [Source: File:Annakoteshvara Temple, Latadeipur, Dhenkanal.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

Cō̄hāṇa Patna kingdom emerged in 1360 CE after Ramai Cō̄hāṇa overthrew Hattahamir, the administrator of the region as Cōṛagaṅga Empire started weakening following invasions from the northern part of the subcontinent. Its relationship with Gajapati empire is uncertain.

→ Cō̄hāṇa Patna kingdom commissioned temples:

Harisankar Devasthana on the slopes of Gandhamardhan hills, Bolangir District, Odisha, India. (Established 14th century CE) [Source: File:Harishankar Temple.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

2. Sri Nrusinghanatha temple at the foothills of Gandhamardhan hills near Paikmal, Bargarh, Bargarh district, Odisha, eastern India (15th century CE) [Source: File:Nrusinghanath Temple.JPG - Wikimedia Commons]

Baṅlā Rēkhā deula type temples

When Rēkhā style reappeared in 16th century CE, it was completely transformed by features like internal domes, arches, and terracotta decorated facades. Many such temples were built in the 19th century CE although they were mostly much smaller than the pre-Mohemmadan rule temples. During this period, ridged temples started to be built. The temples from this period are also more frequently octagonal in plan. Dome tops also made their appearance.

→ Examples of later Rēkhā deula type temples

Ichhai Ghosher Deul in Gourangapur village, Kanksa CD block, Durgapur subdivision of Paschim Bardhaman district, West Bengal, India — conserving most of the features of earlier Rēkhā deul type temples, its entranced are smooth true arches. It is a 7-facet plan temple reaching about ~18m high (Built 16th century CE) [Source: File:Temple of Ichai Ghosh.jpg]

Jora Deul (2 temples joined by a passageway) in Baidyapur, Kalna II CD block, Kalna subdivision of Purba Bardhaman district, West Bengal, India (Built possibly 1550 CE, but reconstructed later on) [Source: File:Ancient twin temples WLM2016-5722.jpg]

Mathurapur Deul in Madhukhali Upazila, Faridpur district, Bangladesh — a dodecagonal planar tower curving smoothly towards the top. There is a slightly visible linear portion demarcating the boundary between the straight lower part and curving upper part. The entire structure is ridged, and the entrances are cusped arches. (Estimated 16th-17th century CE) [Source: File:মথুরাপুরদেউলg]

Tirhuta/Maithila Architecture

Darbhanga Raj was founded by Maithil Brahmins called Khaṇḍavālas. It emerged as Gūrkānī feudatory kingdom, and overthrew Ōinivāra dynasty. Its capital was Darbhanga, and it later became a princely state under the British.

→ Shri Ram Janaki Mandir in Ahilya Sthan, Ahiyari, Darbhanga, Bihar, India — features a mix of Śēkharī and Bhūmija type tower (Built 1662–1682 CE under Darbhanga Raj as Gūrkānī feudatories) [Source: Travelling to Mithila: These Temples should not be missed]

18th century CE – 20th century CE

• Nagpur Bhō̃salē kingdom (1739 CE – 1853 CE)

• British Colonial Rule (till 1947)

  • Bhavnagar State (1723 CE – 1948 CE) [British princely state]

  • Athmallik State (1785 CE – 1948 CE)

  • Porbandar State (1808 CE – 1948 CE) [British princely state]

  • Darbhanga Raj (18th century CE – 1947 CE) [continuing as British princely state]

  • Orchha Bundēlas/Orchha State (1812 CE – 1948 CE) [continuing as British princely state]

  • Sambalpur Cō̄hāṇa State (1817 CE – 1849 CE) [continuing as British princely state]

  • Mēdapāṭa Sisō̄diyās/Udaipur State (1818 CE – 1948 CE) [continuing as British princely state]

  • Mārwāṛ Rāṭhō̄ras/Jodhpur State (1818 CE – 1948 CE) [continuing as British princely state]

  • Jaipur State (1818 CE – 1948 CE) [continuing as British princely state]

  • Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu (1846 CE – 1952 CE)

Polities:

Marāṭhās started as feudatories of Ādil Šāhī (Bijapur Sultanate) and became independent under Śivājī Bhō̃salē I, ruling large parts of South Asia as Marāṭhā empire and Marāṭhā confederacy until being overtaken by British Colonial Rule. Nagpur Bhō̃salē kingdom was founded by Raghūjī Bhō̃salē I by overthrowing Deogarh Gonds and Ratnapura Kalacurīs.

Most of the regions of Indian subcontinent were ruled by the British Colonial Empire during 19th and 20th century CE. Many of the existing kingdoms continued to exist as British princely states up until Indian independence.

Temples:

Nagpur Bhō̃salē kingdom undertook construction of some temples which can be arguably classified under Nāgara architecture family, although they may be arguably classified under Marāṭhī Temple Architecture as well.

Temple construction activities during British Colonial Period were undertaken by the princely states and wealthy devotees. Birla Temples, initiated by the industrialist Birla family began to appear during this period.

Nagpur Bhō̃salē kingdom undertook construction of some temples which can be arguably classified under Nāgara architecture family, although they may be arguably classified under Marāṭhī Temple Architecture as well.

Ramtek Fortess’s Ram Temple and Lakshman Temple were commissioned in 18th century CE by Raghūjī Bhō̃salē I. He also refurbished the Kaḷiṅga architecture Varahanatha Temple in Jajpur, Odisha, India.

→ Ramtek Fortess’s Ram Temple (top) and Lakshman Temple (bottom) (Commissioned 18th century CE by Raghūjī Bhō̃salē I) [Source: Ramtek – The Ramayana Footprint In Vidarbha - Inditales]

Nāgara architecture

Temple construction activities during British Colonial Period were undertaken by the princely states and wealthy devotees. Birla Temples, initiated by the industrialist Birla family began to appear during this period.

→ Kushmanda Durga Mandir Complex in eastern Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India — the main temple features numerous small spires over it (Bhūmija śikhara), and the complex is bound in an enclosure. (Built c.1760 CE commissioned by Queen Bhabānī of Rajshahi Raj) [Source: Durga Temple – Varanasi]

→ Raghunath Temple Complex in Srinagar, Jammu & Kashmir, India — some temples are non-Nāgara type, but most are Nāgara type. They show some influence of Bāṅlā by inclusion of Bāṅlā cālā style blind niches and of Irano-Turkic architecture by inclusion of horseshoe arches (Built 1835–1860 CE under Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu) [Source: Raghunath Temple | Significance of Raghunath Temple – AstroVedpedia]

→ Madan Mohan Temple Complex in Vrindavan, Uttar Pradesh, India — consists of 2 octagonal prāsādas built side-by-side. The taller prāsāda enshrines Lalitā while the shorter one enshrines Rādhā, with Kr̥ṣṇa in middle of the 2 female deities. The gateway to the complex is perpendicular to the temples’ entrance. The taller prāsāda is similar to that of the earlier Vrindavan Jugal Kishore Temple (Current structure built 1819 CE by devotee Nand Lal Vasu) [Source:Sri Madan Mohan Temple Vrindavan]

→ Radha Gopinath Temple in Vrindavan, Uttar Pradesh, India (Current structure built 1819 CE ) [Source: Gopinath: the Lord of the Braj Gopis - Vrindavan Today]

→ Nāgara architecture Birla Temples examples:

1. Shri Vishwanath Mandir in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, norther India (Built 1931–1966 CE) [Source: File:New Vishwanath Temple at BHU.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

2. Laxminarayan Temple Complex in Delhi, northern India (Built 1933–1939 CE ) [Source: File:Laxminarayan Temple in New Delhi 03-2016.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

Uncertain attribution

→ Durga Devi Temple Complex at Panipat, Harayana, India (Built 18th century CE) [Source: List of Religious Places and Temples in Haryana - Tusk Travel]

Māru-Gurjara architecture

Māru-Gurjara architecture was patronised mainly by the Princely States and wealthy devotees of present-day Rajasthan & Gujarat — these include both Sanatanist and Jaina temples.

→ Koteshwar Mahadev Temple in Koteshwar, Kutch district, Gujarat, India (Built 1820 CE by devotees Sundarji and Jetha Shivji) [Source: File:Koteshwar.JPG - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Takhteshwar Temple in Bhavnagar, Saurashtra, Gujarat, India (Built 1893 CE under king Takhtsinhji Gohil of Bhavnagar state) [Source: http://gujarattourism.com/saurashtra/bhavnagar/takhteshwar-temple.html]

→ Hutheesingh Temple in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India — It features an enclosing wall with its own 2-storied entrance porch and temple-tower like spires all over it (Built 1848 CE) [Source: File:Sheth Hutheesinh Temple.jpg - Wikipedia]

→ Sudama Mandir in Porbandar, Saurashtra, Gujarat, India (Built 1902–1907; Porbandar State) [Source: http://gujarattourism.com/saurashtra/porbandar/sudama-mandir.html]

→ BAPS Swaminarayan Akshardham Temples examples:

1. Shree Swaminarayan Mandir Kalupur in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India (Built 1819–1822 CE) [Source: File:Shree Swaminarayan Sampraday, Ahmedabad.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

2. Swaminarayan Mandir in Vadtal, Kheda district, Gujarat, western India (Built 1823–1824 CE) [Source: File:Vadtaltemple.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

3. Shri Swaminarayan Mandir (East Africa Satsang Mandal Temple) in Nairobi, Kenya (established 1945) [Source: File:EASS Temple Nairobi.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

Kaḷiṅga architecture

Kaḷiṅga architecture was patronised by Princely States of Odisha, and mainly includes Sanatanist temples during this period.

→ Bimaleshwar Temple Complex in Huma, Sambalpur district, Odisha, India (Built 17th-18th century CE; Sambalpur State [Source: File:Huma 01.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Charchika Temple in Banki, Cuttack district, Odisha, India (Built 19th century CE) [Source: File:Charchika chamunda.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Deulajhari Siddheswar Temple Complex in Deulajhari, Anugul district, Odisa, India (Built 1936 CE under king Kiśōra Candra of Athmallick State) [Source: Deulajhari - Hot Springs - Sidheswar Temple - Athamalik - Anugul -Odisha]

Baṅlā Rēkhā deula type temples

→ Examples of Baṅlā Rēkhā deula type temples:

1. Dharapat Viṣṇu Deula having earlier Jaina dieties attached on the walls, in Dharapat village of Bishnupur subdivision, Bankura district, West Bengal, India — the upper tiers are 5-facet plan, while lowermost tier is 11-facet plan. (Built in 1694 or 1704 CE) [Source: Category:Deul of Dharapat - Wikimedia Commons]

2. Pratapeshwar Temple at Ambika Kalna Rajbari Temple Complex, Ambika Kalna, West Bengal, India — It is a 7-facet (saptaratha) type temple with a distinct ridged upper part. It features a spire at the top having a discus. The temple stands on a raised platform reached by semi-circular stairs visible in foreground. (Built 19th century CE by king Pratāpa Canda’s widow queen) [Source: File:Kalna Pratapeswar Temple by Piyal Kundu.jpg]

3. Sribati Temple Cluster of Sribati village in Katwa II CD block in the Katwa subdivision of Purba Bardhaman district of West Bengal, India. The leftmost temple is square plan Chandreshwar Temple built in 1802 CE, the rightmost is octagonal Viswesara Temple built in 1836 CE. The middle temple is a 5-Ratna temple with pinnacles constructed in resemblance to Chandreshwar Temple. [Source: File:Three Temples of Sribati.JPG]

4. Surul Twin Śiva Temples in Surul, Bolpur Sriniketan CD block in Bolpur subdivision of Birbhum district, West Bengal, India. The left temple is square 7-facet ridged temples, while right one is hexagonal ridged temple [Source: Trip to West Bengal - Feb. 2014 - Part-1 : Kolkata-Kalna-Shantiniketan-Surul-Barakar]

Tirhuta/Maithila Architecture

→ Darbhanga Raj commissioned temples:

Shyama Kali Temple Complex in Darbhanga, Bihar, India (Built 1933 CE by Darbhanga Raj ruler Kāmēśvara Siṅgh) [Source:Log into Facebook]

Kankali Temple Complex inside Darbhanga Fort Complex, Darbhanga, Bihar, India (Built 1934 CE) [Source: Log into Facebook]

1947 CE onwards (Modern Period)

Temple construction activities of Nāgara, Māru-Gurjara and Kaḷiṅga architecture are primarily undertaken by religious trusts and wealthy devotees.

With an increasingly connected world (globalization), the transportation of material has become easier, and consequently exotic materials like Italian Carrara marble can be sometimes used for temple construction. The adaptations to temple construction for modern construction techniques and legal compliances often end up making it difficult to classify temples among Nāgara and Māru-Gurjara architecture, and in a few cases, whether they can be classified under them at all despite sharing elements with them.

Nāgara architecture

→ Juggilal Kamlapat temple in Sarvodaya Nagara, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India (Built 1960 CE by Singhania business family) [Source:J.K.Temple – Kshethradanam]

→ Durga Temple Complex in Lorton, Virginia, USA (Built 1996–1999 CE) [Source: File:Durga Temple of Virginia.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Priyakant Ju Temple Complex in Vrindavan, Uttar Pradesh, India — the prāsāda’s lower portion is shaped like a lotus, hence making the śikhara appear to be resting on a lotus. (Built 2016 CE) [Source:Shri Priyakant Ju Temple | Shri Priyakant Ju Mandir | Temple in vrindavan | Shri Priyakant Ju Temple, Vrindavan]

→ Nāgara architecture Birla Temples examples:

1. Lakshmi Narayan Temple in Arera Hills, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, central India (Built 1960 CE) [Source: File:Lakshmi Narayan Temple 01.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

2. Renukeshawar Mahadev Temple in Renukoot, Sonbhadra, Uttar Pradesh, northern India (Built 1972 CE) [Source: File:Hindu God Shiva Temple.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Mahabodhi Temple based temples:

1. Wat Tham Khao Rup Chang in Sadao district, Thailand — Based on Mahabodhi Temple, but with additional 4 towers surrounding the replicated 5-tower structure. The temple follows the recursion principle on itself as well, the outermost 4 towers sit directly on the roof the base structure which has an entrance porch; this is replicated on a smaller scale on a platform containing the rest 5 towers. (Built 1976 CE) [Source: File:Wat Tham Khao Rup Chang - 001 Temple of the Thousand Buddhas (14642618206).jpg]

2. Thatta Thattaha Maha Bawdi Pagoda in Naypyidaw, Myanmar — it is an almost exact replica of original Mahabodhi Temple, reaching a height of ~49m. (Built 2015 CE by Naypyidaw Development Committee) [Source: File:Buddha Gaya Naypyitaw 001.jpg]

Māru-Gurjara architecture

→ Nareli Jain Temple Complex in Nareli, Ajmer, Rajasthan, India (Established 1994 by Ashok Patni of RK Marbles) [Source: Nareli Jain Temple - Wikipedia]

→ Shashwat Dham in in Devchuli, Nawalpur district, Gandaki Province, Nepal (Inaugurated 2017) [Source: File:Shashwat dham.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Māru-Gurjara architecture Birla Temples examples:

1. Lakshmi Narayan Temple in Kolkata, West Bengal, eastern India (Built 1970–1996 CE) [Source: File:Birla Mandir astounding Beauty.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

2. Lakshmi Narayan Temple in Jaipur, Rajasthan, north western India (Built 1977–1988 CE) [Source: File:Birla mandir jaipur.JPG - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Māru-Gurjara architecture BAPS Swaminarayan Akshardham Temples examples:

1. Swaminarayan Akshardham Temple in Gandhinagar, Gujarat, western India (Built 1979–1992 CE) [Source: File:Akshardham Gandhinagar Gujarat.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

2. Swaminarayan Akshardham Temple in Delhi, northern India — utlises Italian carrara marble and Indian pink sandstone (Built 2001–2005 CE) [Source: File:New Delhi Temple.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

3. BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir Atlanta in Lilburn, Atlanta, Georgia, USA — utilises Italian marble, Turkish Limestone and Indian pink sandstone. (Built 2005–2007 CE) [Source: File:Hindutempleatlanta.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

Kaḷiṅga architecture

→ Ram Mandir Complex in Janpath, Bhubaneswara, Odisha, India (Built 20th century CE sometime after Indian independence) [Source: File:Ram Mandir, Bhubaneswar.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Laxmi Narayan Temple Complex in Rourkela, Sundargarh district, Odisha, India (Built 1966 CE) [Source: Places to Visit in Rourkela - Odisha]

→ Gwalior Sun Temple in Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, central India — based on Konark Sun Temple (Built 1984-1988 CE funded by Birla family) [Source: File:Sun Temple - GWL - F3101 Wiki Veethi.JPG - Wikimedia Commons]

→ Emami Jagannath Temple in Balagopalpur, Balasore district, Odisha, India (Built in 2009–2013 CE funded by Emami Paper Mills) [Source: Planet Odisha]

Tirhuta/Maithila Architecture

→ Uchaith Sthan, Madhubani, Bihar, India (most of present-day structures built 1960 CE onwards) [Source: Travelling to Mithila: These Temples should not be missed]